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Operation Punishment: The German Invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece-1941

Benito Mussolini, Fascist dictator of Italy was, by 1941, piqued that his German ally, Adolf Hitler, kept doing things without prior consultation or advanced warning, like invading Poland in September, 1939, or opening his Western offensive in May, 1940.
So, in an effort to get back his own, Mussolini ordered the Italian Army to invade Greece, without consulting Hitler, in the autumn of 1940 [he also ordered the invasion of British Egypt from Libya]. It was a disaster of momentous proportions.

Attacking out of Albania, the Italian Army, attacking with almost no planning or preparation was first stopped in the mountains of western Greece, and then driven back into Albania.

Adolf Hitler was not pleased. HIS plans for the Balkans were political and diplomatic. Their goal was to bring the area into the Axis, or favorably neutral to Germany . His two overarching concerns were to [1] Keep the British away from the Ploesti oilfields of Romania, his principal source of petroleum, and [2] complete his military buildup for Operation BARBAROSSA, the invasion of the Soviet Union.

Mussolini's action [he had no knowledge of BARBAROSSA] threw a wrench into Hitler's plans and the problems snowballed. Hitler had managed to get a pro-German government in Yugoslavia, despite the Yugoslavs' antipathy for Bulgaria, an Axis ally. With Mussolini's invasion of Greece, the British not only intervened in Greece [which helped a scratch German expeditionary force in Libya, the AFRIKA KORPS, by drawing off Commonwealth troops to Greece], but managed to get a coup going in Yugoslavia that put in an anti- German government. Hitler was outraged, and Operation PUNISHMENT was born.


While the name of the operation specifically referred to the Luftwaffe operation to bomb Belgrade into rubble, it also encompassed the re-deployment of German troops from Austria Czechoslavakia and Bulgaria into almost simultaneous attacks on Yugoslavia and eastern Greece. Using Panzer troops, the Germans stormed into central Yugoslavia , then turned north and south. the Croatians in the Yugoslav Army defected. Belgrade was quickly taken, and Yugoslavia was quickly defeated. Using railroad lines for the armor to move on, the Germans quickly moved south, into Greece. The 1st SS Panzer Grenadier Regiment, the LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER, captured Thermopylae. They soon accepted the surrender of Athens. German airborne troops seized the Isthmus of Corinth. Mainland Greece fell to the Axis forces soon after [Italy got a large piece of Greece. The Commonwealth troops in Greece, along with the Greek Army and government fell back to the island of Crete. Within a month or so, the island would fall to the first airborne invasion in history, Operation MERKUR [Mercury]

Hitler wound up pouring resources and troops into two areas he didn't want, and the AFRIKA KORPS into another to prop up his now dependent ally, and holding them. The operations put wear and tear on troops and equipment earmarked for the toughest sector of what was to become the Eastern Front,  Ukraine. What the Balkans operations didn't do was fatally delay [as some have argued] the invasion of the Soviet Union. Western Russia and Ukraine had an inordinately long and wet Spring in 1941. The Germans had to wait for what passed as roads to dry before the mechanized units could attack. The Balkans operation delayed BARBAROSSA by no more than two weeks when allowance was made for the weather.

Thank you for posting.

April 9, 1241: The Battle of Liegnitz

At the Kuriltai of 1234 that proclaimed Uggedai Quan, third son of Chingghis as Qa Quan, or Supreme Quan, one of the new ruler's first edits was to carry out his father's wish, and conquer the lands to the west 'as far as Mongol ponies had trod' to create an Ulus, or appendage for the sons of Chingghis' first son, Jochi, who had predeceased his father. Mongol horses had been as far west as the Crimea and Black Sea during the 'Great Raid of 1223-1224.

The campaign began in earnest in the winter of 1236-1237 when, after crossing some fifteen degrees of latitude, and breaking the Volga Bulgars, and either scattering or incorporating the Cumans or Kipchaks, the Mongols launched a winter assault on central Russia. they had conquered all of it, except Novgorad, by Spring 1238. Novogorad submitted before being sacked [Eisenstein to the contrary].

The Mongol Army then moved into the southern steppe near the Aral Seas  and rested until 1240 when they again rode west, and sacked Kiev, overrunning Ukraine. Russia was now theirs. By December, the Mongols were again on the move. Their primary target was Hungary.

The Mongol Army now numbered around 80,000 to 100,000 men, including 30,000 they left in Russia. Primarily composed of Turks and Kipchaks, it also had a sizable core of Mongol troops, because Uggedai had sent the princes of all the major houses [Uggedid, Chagadtid, Touid, and Jochid on the campaign. the Army was ostensibly commanded by Jochi's oldest son, Batu Quan. His brothers Buri, Baidar and Berke accompanied him. Also present were Mongke [son of Tolui], Guyuk and Kadaan [sons of Uggedai], as well as two sons of Chagatai. The ACTUAL commander of the operation was Subodei Ba'adur, Chingghis' and history's greatest general.

While Hungary was the main objective, Subodei was concerned about securing his flanks and isolating Hungary. Guyuk was sent to ravage the Balkans, while Buri and Kadaan were given two tumen [20,000 men] and sent to take Poland out of play. The stage was set for the battle of Liegnitz.

Upon entering Poland, the Mongols engaged the army of Boleslas the Chaste. They destroyed him. From there they rode to Cracow and razed it. The sack is remembered to this day when, at noon, a fireman blows an incomplete trumpet call, in memory of a trumpeter killed mid-call by a Mongol arrow in 1241. Buri and Kadaan then rode further west, to Liegnitz. To their front was a mixed army of Templars, Livonian knights, local nobles and peasant levies, totaling some 40,000 under the command of Henry the Pious. Reconnaissance also  revealed a second army commanded by Wenceslas ['Good King Wenceslas'] of Bohemia. Already outnumbered two to one, the Mongols sought battle.

They waited for the Europeans to advance. Once the European heavy cavalry opened the distance between the infantry and themselves, the Mongols created some kind of smoke screen using chemicals or firing the grass. they then attacked the European cavalry with an arrow storm from their light cavalry. The compound bows the Mongols used could penetrate the chain mail of the Europeans. Once the Europeans were stooped the Mongol heavy cavalry countercharged and rode them down. The first time the infantry knew something was wrong was when the remnants of their cavalry, pursued by the Mongols rode through the smokescreen. The infantry, along with almost the entire army, including Henry the Pious was killed. The Mongols then rode off to deal with Wenceslas, with 40,000 ears in sacks; and eventually, having neutralized Poland, rode down into Hungary.



April 9, 1865: Robert E. Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House.

Wilbur Maclean had fled his first home, in 1861. That home was at a place called Bull Run, and Maclean had wound up in the middle of a battle. Seeking to avoid a repetition of that event, he moved to the village of Appomattox Court House. War caught up with him anyway.

By Spring of 1865, the Confederacy in the East was on its last legs. Lee's Army was trapped in the trenches of Petersburg. Sherman was rampaging through the Carolinas. And then, at Five Forks, Sheridan cracked the Confederate line, forcing the Confederate government to flee Richmond, and Lee to retreat to the west, in the hope of hooking up with Gen. Joseph Johnston, facing Sherman. The plan soon fell apart. Lee's Army wound up separating along two lines of march. Sheridan, dogging Lee, pounced. At Sailor's Creek, Custer, commanding the 3d Cavalry Division, led an attack that bagged a third of Lee's Army, including Gen. Richard Ewell, one of Lee's only two Corps commanders [A.P. Hill had died near Petersburg.

Custer then rode along the southern flank of Lee's main force, along with other cavalry units, and got in front of Lee [Custer captured a train with rations for Lee. A Confederate attack by their lead elements against the cavalry was halted when large numbers of Union infantry appeared behind the Union horsemen. A flag of truce followed, and it was agreed that Lee and Grant would meet the next day - at Wilbur Maclean's house. Lee's uniform was immaculate, Grant's was muddy. Lee was reserved. Grant tried to put him at ease. By the time they were down, Grant had given Lee very generous terms for him and his menand Wilbur Maclean had sold the table on which the surrender was signed to Phil Sheridan - who gave the table as a gift, to Libby Custer.



April 9, 1940: The Weser Exercise - The German invasion of Norway and Denmark.

It started over a geographic necessity. The Germans needed Swedish iron ore, and the only ice free port it could be sent through in winter, was Narvik, Norway. It was triggered by a singular event. In 1939, the German pocket battleship, ADMIRAL GRAF SPEE, was commerce raiding in the South Atlantic. She used the freighter ALTMARCK as her supply ship, and as a prison ship for the prisoners she took. GRAF SPEE was sunk in late 1939 when see scuttled at Montevideo, Uruguay. But ALTMARCK, and her prisoners, was moving down the Norwegian coast, in Norway's territorial waters, on her way back to the Reich. She was intercepted by a boarding party from HMS COSSACK, a British destroyer that killed several of the crew, and freed the prisoners. The Norwegians were unable to, or did nothing, to defend the ALTMARCK, or their territorial waters. Hitler took notice.

Hitler was already being pushed to occupy Norway by Grossadmiral Raeder, the commander of the German Navy. He wanted Norway for U-boat bases that would get the German subs beyond a North Sea blockade by the British. Hitler had also been promised help by the leader of the Norwegian Nazis, Vidkun Quisling.

Once planning began, the Germans added Denmark to the list, as both an entity in itself, with very seful airields, and as a bridge to Norway itself.

WESERBUNG was the first combined operation of the Second World War. The German Navy landed troops at five ports in Norway [Oslo, Christianstand, Tromso, Bergen and Narvik. SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU were used to draw off Royal Navy heavy units. The Luftwaffe few cover for the Navy and Army, and airborne troops were used to seize Norwegian airfields near Oslo, and in southern Norway. But victory wasn't cheap. The British and French had also decided to occupy Narvik and points south. But they brought no tanks, no meaningful artillery, and negligible air. They also had little equipment to move in the snow.

The Allies drove the Germans out of Narvik, and back into the hills behind it. But as the Wehrmacht consolidated Norway and pushed north, the Allies were forced to abandon the town. By early June, partially in response to the attack on France, Belgium and Holland, the Allies abandoned Norway.Hitler's iron was safe, but at heavy cost. Germany lost half her destroyer force at Narvik. She lost one heavy and two light cruisers. When the Germans contemplated the invasion of England later that year, those losses loomed large.

So there you have it. Three for Nine.

Thank you PzLdr I enjoy these.

Three Mongol columns converged on the city of Pest on March 17th, 1241. Guyuk Quan, having razed much of the Balkans, came from the south. Subodei and Batu Quan brought two columns that had crossed the Carpathian mountains, destroying  the Hungarian fortifications in their way, and arrived from the East. The only column missing was the one commanded by Buri Quan and Kadaan Quan that was late coming down from Poland.

The Mongols faced the twin cities of Buda and Pest, which comprised the capitol of the kingdom of Hungary, and the seat of its king, Bela IV, that occupied both banks of the Danube River. They also faced a potential military organization much bigger than their own.

But Bela had some serious problems. He had given refuge to the Cumans/Kipchaks, who had fled from the Mongol onslaught on the steppe and in Russia. To show good faith, many of the horsemen, including their Quan, Khotien, had converted to Catholicism, and become vassals of Bela. But the move did not sit well with many of Bela's nobles. They resented the Cumans, and chafed at the alliance. Things were made worse when Subodei sent an embassy demanding the return of the Cumans to the Mongols, and claiming the Cumans presence in Hungary as the reason for the Mongol invasion.

Additionally, one of Bela's chief vassals, the Duke of Austria, was almost in direct rebellion, and refused his sovereign's demand for aid. But Bela's biggest problem was the disarray of Europe, well known to the Mongols through their agents the Venetians. The Pope and Holy Roman Emperor were in a power struggle, and the Pope refused to acknowledge the Emperor as the Emperor, and excommunicated him. The Emperor's edicts had no force.

And then there were the firebrands, who wanted to attack, immediately. Their first efforts, outside Pest were a disaster. One of their leaders, the Bishop of Ugolin, barely escaped with his life.

then all hell broke loose. Khotien Quan was killed by Hungarian nobles. the Cumans went on a rampage, burning and killing their way through western Hungary, and weakening Bela's position. Deciding to act quickly, Bela led his Army of some 100,000 men out of Pest. The Mongols turned and retreated to the northeast

The retreat lasted three days. By that time, the northern Mongol column had rejoined the army, and the Mongols were at a place on the Sajo River called Mohi. They retreated over a bridge, and through a valley and onto wooded ridges that surrounded the valley on three sides. They left the bridge unguarded. The Hungarians camped on both sides of the bridge. During the night, an escaped prisoner told the Hungarians the Mongols were in the hills, but the Hungarians did nothing.

Batu opened the battle the next morning, not with a cavalry charge, or an arrow storm, but with catapult fire. The Mongols may have used gunpowder. It was only when the valley camp was in shambles, and the Hungarians began retreating across the bridge that Batu's cavalry attacked. The fighting was heavy, and the Hungarians seemed to be holding their own when the were attacked in the flank and rear by Subodei, who had built a second bridge upstream, and crossed at least two Tumen to take the Hungarians by surprise. The Hungarians were quickly encircled and the catapults started again. Then, miraculously, the Hungarians spotted an opening in the Mongol lines. Or so they thought.

First in ones and twos, then in hundreds and thousands they began to flee the battlefield, dropping weapons, shields, helmets, pieces of chain mail in their desire to lighten their load and flee back to Pest. But it was all a stratagem conceived by Subodei. Mongol archers began to ghost the columns, shooting those fleeing like animals on the hunt. Bela escaped [to be pursued down the Adriatic coast by Kadaan and a tuman]. The Bishop of Ugolin did not. Neither did over 70,00 of his compatriots.

The Mongols then rode back and took Pest. Buda fell to them on Christmas Eve. BY Spring, Mongol units were raiding Wiener Neustadt, and doing reconnaissance of Udine in Italy, and Vienna. Then, they pulled back, never to return, except for some major raids. But those are other stories...

Adolf Hitler is born on 20 April 1889 at Braunau an Inn, Austria. His father is a member of the Civil Service of the Austro- Hungarian Empire; a tariff inspector on the border with Bavaria, Germany. Alois Hitler, born Schickelgruber, was of working class stock who had worked his way up through the beauracracy to a senior post in the tax inspectorate. His second wife, Klara, was the mother of several children before Adolf, but all predeceased him. He did have sisters and half-sidters and a borther from his father's first wife.

Contrary to later rumor, Adolf Hitler was nor born Adolf Schickelgruber. His father's was recognized by Johannes Hitler well before Adolf's birth. The family apparently came from the Waldweirtal, near the Czech border, and the family name may have originally been Heidler or Heitler. But by the time of Alois' legitimation, it was Hitler.

Thanks for posting.

On January 15th, 1945, a heavily armored train left a headquarters near the German - Belgian border. It carried Adolf Hitler, Fuehrer and Reichskanzeller, from the dying embers of Operation HERBSTNEBEL [the Battle of the Bulge] back to Berlin, the Reichs Chancellary, and the Fuehrerbunker below it. Except for one short visit to the nearby Eastern Front, Hitler would never leave Berlin again. Except for one or two visits to the chancellery garden, by March he spent all his time below ground in the Bunker, directing a more and more fantastical war.

The bunker had been built by Albrecht Speer, during the war. It composed a warren of rooms on two levels, was damp, humid and crowded. In addition to Hitler, his mistress, Eva Braun, his secretaries and his vegetarian cook, the bunker staff included Hitler's aides from all the services and various Reichs Ministries, a guard detachment from the 1st SS Panzer Division, medical personnel, and others. In addition, Joseph Goebbels, Hitler's Propaganda Minister, his wife and their six children moved into the bunker. Also present was the ubiquitous 'brown eminence', Martin Bormann.

Hitler's days and nights were much the same. Sleep late, military briefings, involving the movement of phantasm military formations, the issuance of orders, sleep, and more of the same. But by April 20th, things began to change.

April 20th was Hitler's 56th, and last, birthday, and for the last time, the paladins of the Reich gathered to celebrate Hitler's birthday. Goering, Himmler, Goebbels, Bormann, Keitel  and many of the usual suspects were there for a very subdued celebration. Once again, efforts were made to get Hitler to leave the now all but encircled Reichs capital. Once again he refused to leave. But the Paladins did. Goering went south, to Bertchesgarten. Himmler went north, to the SS health clinic. Jodl went to Zossen, the Army's headquarters.

The first blow came from Goering, who when Hitler was cut off by the Russians, radioed asking if he should act on Hitler's decree of 1942 naming him the successor, and 'take over'. Bormann, a deadly enemy used Goering's query to rouse Hitler to fury at Goering's 'treason'. Hitler ordered Goering arrested by the SS, and stripped him of all his officers. He then had a Luftwaffe general, Ritter von Greim, flown into Berlin [he was wounded on the way], and made him the last Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe. He then had von Greim flown out of Berlin.

Worse was to come. The BBC announced that "Der Treuer Heinrich", the Reichsfuehrer SS, was seeking to negotiate a separate peace with the Western Allies, and that he had also met with Jewish representatives. Hitler's rage at that news was uncontrollable. And it fell on what would be his brother-in-law, Hermann Fegelein, SS Gruppenfuehrer, his SS aide, and husband of Eva Braun's sister, Gretl. When Hitler ordered Fegelein to report to him in the bunker, Fegelein was absent. Hitler sent an SS detail to find him. They did. In an apartment. In civilian clothes. With jewelry, currency, a woman not his wife, and several different sets of identification. He was taken back to the bunker and, despite Braun's pleas, was put up against a wall, and on Hitler's orders, shot.

The last, and most devastating blow came from yet another SS officer, Gruppenfuehrer Felix Steiner, erstwhile commander of the 5th SS Panzer Division, "WIKING" [Viking], and current commander of "Group Steiner", an amalgam of units and subunits that in Hitler's mind constituted a formidable armored fist, but in reality looked like a bad version of Britain's 1940 Home Guard.

Hitler had sent Field Marshal Keitel, Chief of OKW, to order Steiner to attack to the southeast, while Army General Walter Wenck's  12th Army attacked to the northeast to crush the Russian encirclement and relieve Berlin [Wenck only fought close enough to offer an avenue of escape to the remnants of the German 9th Army and whatever civilians they could]. Steiner categorically refused the order, and when Keitel reported that refusal to Hitler, Hitler finally admitted publically, in front of a group of people, that the war was lost.

Events followed swiftly. On the 28th, a local official was rounded up, and with Goebbels and Bormann as witnesses, Hitler married his long suffering mistress, Eva Braun. On the 29th, Hitler had the same cyanide capsules Himmler had previously given out tested on his dog, Blondi. He also had all her pups killed. On the 30th, after dictating his Political Testament and Will, Hitler and Braun  retired to his sitting room, with his SS orderly, Otto Gunsche guarding the door. Braun killed herself with cyanide. Hitler, a cyanide capsule in his mouth, shot himself in the head. The bodies were then removed, carried up to the Chancellary grden, doused with gasoline, and set afire [Hitler was determined not have his corpse despoiled, like Mussolini's had been.

Goebbels and his wife followed their Fuehrer into death by suicide, after murdering their six children. Bormann was killed trying to escape Berlin [his body wasn't found until the '70s. Many of the bunker inmates fell captives to the Russians. the last Army Chief of Staff, Krebs, killed himself in the Bunker. Himmler committed suicide when he was captured on May 18th. Goering committed suicide at Nurenburg. Keitel and Jodl were hanged as war crimianls. But for Adolf Hitler, it all ended on April the 30th, 1945.

Love reading these Pldzr!

PzLdr, as an expert in German military history, do you think it is possible Martin Bormann was a Soviet spy?

Book Review: Hitler?s Traitor: Martin Bormann and the Defeat of the Reich (by Louis Kilzer) : WW2
http://www.historynet.com/book-review-hitlers-traitor-martin-bormann-and-the-defeat-of-the-reich-by-louis-kilzer-ww2.htm

Before anyone dismiss such an idea as fanciful, I recommend they research the life and activities of Richard Sorge in xenophobic WW2 Japan. Sorge's remarkable achievements in penetrating Japanese military secrets changed the course of the war and the course of history.

Then, too, there was the Soviet infiltration into the Roosevelt administration and the distinct possibility Roosevelt's close advisor Harry Hopkins was a deep cover Soviet agent. American Betrayal: The Secret Assault on Our Nation's Character review: http://www.amazon.com/American-Betrayal-Assault-Nations-Character/dp/0312630786

Soviet espionage activities during WWII were awe inspiring in effectiveness and depth. Thus I do not find the possibility Bormann was part of such a network fantasy.

Sorge is an interesting story.  Almost certainly, he would have been shot by Stalin had he returned to the USSR.

Stalin murdered tens of millions of Russians, routinely purging anyone that was anyone.  He feared everyone.  Ditch diggers were safe, and anything above that was at risk.

It was not unusual for Stalin to determine 5,000 people to be executed in a night.  That was his recreation, planning the murder of his fellow countrymen.

If you want to read a truly shocking book, read Gulag by a woman named Applebaum.  Based on her writing, I suspect the real number of people murdered by Lenin and Stalin was at or over 100 million Russians.

I don't think so. Bormann was part of a Fehme murder in the 20s [an accomplice was Rudolf Hoess, the future Commandant of Auschwitz-Birkenau], so Bormann was involved in extremely right-wing politics extremely early. And even if he had the motive where was the opportunity. The Gestapo broke the KPD by 1935-36. Who would Bormann have been recruited by? Plus there's the cottage industry of "Famous Nazis who were Soviet Spies". They've even made the claim for 'Gestapo' Mueller.

As it was Soviet intelligence did a bang-up job with outfits such as the Red Orchestra, based largely in Goering's Air Ministry, and Belgium, 'Lucy', running out of Switzerland, and the Sorge Ring in Tokyo. their common feature was that most of them were run externally to Germany. So the questions then arise [1] How did Bormann get his info out, and [2] Why have the KGB files never revealed memos of such significant intelligence.

Still, anything is possible. But I've often wondered why no one has looked at the SA leadership that survived the Night of the Long Knives. During the war, some were of use in the Foreign Office and various Ministries, including thos in foreign countries. they would have had access to worthwhile intelligence in those posts. And the SA was always referred to as "Beefsteak Nazis" - Brown on the outside, Red on the inside.

Hope that helps. 

Thank you. Interesting information. Only 3 further observations.

(1) . Partly because they have yet to be thoroughly vetted, the Venona revelations being only a fraction of what is available. Secondly, the documents refer to foreign agents by their code names and sometimes it is difficult, if not impossible (so far), to tie them to actual individuals.

(2) Bormann being involved in early Fascist violence may actually be evidence of his dual role. To begin with as a Communist such brutality would mean little or nothing. Then, too, why should his early involvement be seen as exculpatory? Frankfurter brought  his Harvard boys into the Roosevelt administration right after the election of '32. Many, if not most, were already committed Marxist like Hiss. From those early days they metastasized throughout the government and would have retired fat, happy, and honored if not for Chambers and Bentley.

(3) It is well known the Nazis and the Communists traded personnel readily. Bormann may have been given the assignment to monitor Nazi activities in case they actually achieved anything, or were seen as a group with a potential for violence which would help create anarchy in the streets of Germany, a condition Communists always strive for (and which helps explain the BLM and SJW movements in our own country today).

None of this means Bormann was a Party member, nor does it explain the greatest obstruction to the idea he might have been: . OTOH, it is quite possible Bormann didn't engage in direct espionage, but rather was a critical Agent of Influence, much like Diana West thinks Hopkins was with Roosevelt (who probably didn't need much persuading).

It is interesting for me, at least, to speculate on these matters, mostly because I am so in awe of Soviet espionage before, during, and after WWII. Someday, God willing, the truth of it all.

 On May 1st, 1945, Germany had a new Fuehrer. But it wasn't any of the 'usual suspects'. Goering was under arrest, on Hitler's orders. Goebbels, the new Reichs Chancellor, had committed suicide. Bormannn, the new head of the Nazi Party, was missing in Berlin [He was, in fact, dead]. Himmler had been stripped of all his offices by Hitler before the latter's own suicide, and a Gauleiter [and former lover of Magda Goebbels] , Karl Hanke, was penciled in as Himmler's replacement as Reichsfuehrer SS. But Himmler was at Flensburg, near the Danish border with the rump government of the Third Reich, and Germany's new Fuehrer, Grand Admiral Karl Doenitz.

Doenitz had been appointed Fuehrer by Hitler himself, shortly before he died. While not a rabid Nazi, Doenitz was sufficiently fanatical to meet Hitler's minimum standard for the job, and was more admired by Hitler than the now disgraced Goering, or any of the remaining military commanders. Flensburg was the seat of government because there was a naval academy there, and a sufficient number of sailors to protect Doenitz from, say, the large number of SS troops accompanying Himmler.

Doenitz faced two realistic tasks: getting as many Germans, troops and civilians away from the Russians rampaging to the East, and buying enough time to do so. But he also knew the jig was up.

Doenitz' schedule was sped up by several events, however. When the Allies met at the Elbe, Germany was cut in half. Doenitz lost what fleeting control he had over southern Germany. Second, the 21st Army Group was driving on Flensburg and the port cities of the North Sea. And the Russians were approaching from the East.

The first shoe to fall occurred on May 6th, when Admiral Friedburg approached Field Marshal Montgomery in an attempt to surrender. Monty turned him out, opting to accept the surrender of the troops in front of him. He also reiterated that unconditional surrender was what was required of the Doenitz government, for ALL German armed forces, and that Eisenhower was the man to see.

Thus is was that on May 7th, Generaloberst Alfred Jodl, Operations off icer of the OKW appeared, with other German officers in a red schoolhouse in Rheims. At the table was Gen. "Beedle" Smith, Eisenhower's Deputy, Air Marshal Tedder, and representatives of the USSR, France and other Allied nations. After some hemming and hawing, Jodl signed the instrument of surrender, to be effective, the next day, May 8th. Jodl was then taken to Eisenhower, where Jodl was made to state he understood the terms, and then left. Eisenhower then signaled at at 0242, SHAEF's mission was accomplished.

Tht was not the end of the matter, however. Josef Stalin was incensed that the surrender was not made to his troops [The Russian general at Eisenhower's HQ was later shot], and demanded that the Germans surrender to him. So, Field Marshal Wilhelm  Keitel, Chief of OKW, appeared before Marshal Georgi Zhukov, Air Marshal Tedder, and others, and replicated the surrender, to be effective on May 9th.

And that is why the end of the war in Europe is celebrated on two different days.

It's official title was a rather pedestrian FALL GELB [Case Yellow]. But in the German Army, it was known by the more colorful title of "Sichellschnitt", the "Scythe Cut", and in six weeks, it led to the surrender of the Netherlands and Belgium,  and Britain being driven off the European mainland [except for raids] for four years. More importantly, it destroyed the French Army and prostrated the French government, leading to Marshal Petain and Vichy. And it owed its success to four things; the brilliance of  single German general, the intuitive military skills of Adolf Hitler, a bad winter, and fog.

On October 5th, 1939, Adolf Hitler presided over a victory parade in Warsaw, Poland. He then ordered an immediate military invasion of France. that order met with strenuous objections from the German military. Bomb and artillery ordnance reserves stood at 50% or lower. the "Light" divisions the Germans had used in company with the Panzer divisions had proved unwieldy and unworkable. German troops, especially the infantry had underperformed in the generals' eyes [this led to a furious row with the Fuehrer]. But Hitler was insistent.

He was also startled when the General Staff rolled out their invasion plan. Germany would attack with three Army Groups: 'B', under General Fedor von Bock would face Holland and Belgium. 'A', under General Karl Gerd von Rundstedt, would face the Belgian Ardennes and the northern mot part of France itself. 'C', under General Ritter von Leeb would face the Maginot Line, and cover France down to the Swiss border.

The main effort, with some 7 or 8 Panzer Divisions [the Light divisions were converted to Panzers, making ample use of Czech made armor] would be under Army Group 'B', into Belgium and Holland. In other words, an expanded replay of World War I's Schlieffen Plan. Army Groups 'A' and 'C' were to tie down the French, but limit themselves to local action. Hitler was not pleased. Aside from a lack of originality, Holland and Belgium were not considered prime tank country, comprising a fairly small area, crisscrossed with rivers, canals, and a lot of marshy ground. Yet the Army High Command was looking to send some 70% of their armor that way. Plus, Hitler reasoned [correctly], the British and French would probably expect such a plan, and build their own plans to deal with it.

Luckily, for the Germans, the winter of 1939-1940 was the worst in 50 years. So the operation kept getting postponed to the point where Hitler finally agreed to wait for Spring. But the briefings went on. At one, with the Operations officer from his own military headquarters, Oberkommando des Wehrmacht [OKW], General Alfred Jodl, Hitler pointed to the area of the Belgian Ardennes when Jodl's pointer got there, and asked about attacking there. Jodl put him off by repeating the accepted axiom that the Ardennes was impassable to tanks, and the matter was dropped.

The Chief of Staff of Army Group 'A', General Erich von Manstein was also intrigued by the Ardennes. But he went further. He consulted the Doyen of the Panzer arm, General Heinz Guderian, about the feasibility of attacking with large armored formations through the area. Guderain, after study said it could be done. And at that point, Manstein developed his own plan for invading the West, the 'Scythe Cut'.

Manstein shifted the Schwerpunkt [along with 7 of Germany's ten Panzer divisions]  from Army Group 'B' to his own Army Group. He proposed using Army Group 'B' as a matador's cape, to draw the French and British into Belgium, while Army Group 'A' broke through the Ardennes, crossed the Meuse between Sedan and Dinant, and moved behind the Allies to the Channel coast, trapping them. Needless to say, his plan was initially rejected by OKH, and when Manstein refused to quiet down, it was decided to transfer him to a third echelon Infantry Corps for the attack.

Enter the fog. In January, 1940, a German Army liaison officer with a full set of the original plans [against orders], inadvertently crash landed in Belgium in heavy fog. the Belgians captured the officer [repatriated, and if I recall correctly, shot] and the plans [kept, and shared with France and Britain]. That capture led to the recasting of the war plans for both sides. Belgium, clinging to its neutrality like a barnacle to a piling, agreed to open their western border to Allied troops, WHEN THE GERMANS CROSSED the Belgian border. France and Britain then planned to move up to the Dyle River in Belgium. It would shorten their line, and allow a nexus with the Belgians and Dutch. To effect the move, however, the French had to move their only reserve army, the 7th to the area of the Belgian and Dutch borders. The 7th Army, France's only reserve, had been positioned behind Sedan.

As the Germnan generals wargamed Manstein's plan, they grew reluctantly, then increasingly receptive to it. If that wasn't enough, Manstein, and other newly promoted commanders were invited to lunch with Hitler at the Chancellary. Hitler's Army aide, Schmundt, arranged for a private meeting for Manstein with Hitler. the result was the adoption of Manstein's planas Case Yellow.

Bock, with three Panzer Divisions, and the Leibstandatre SS 'Adof Hitler' would invade Holland and Belgium. The Luftwaffe's 7th Fallschirmjaeger [Airborne]  Division would jump into Holland seizing bridges for the 9th Panzer. Airborne engineers, using shaped charges [for the first time in modern warfare], would land by gliders on the roof of the 'impregnable' Belgian fortress of Eben Emael. 80 men were expected to neutralize the 2,500 man garrison, and the fortress, the linchpin of the defenses of Liege. At the same time, with Panzergruppe von Kleist [Ewald von Kleist] leading, Army Group 'A' would advance into, and through, the Belgian Ardennes, emerging at the Meuse River. The traffic columns, covered by the Luftwaffe were 100 miles long.

And how did the two sides line up? Counting the Belgians and the Dutch, the Allies had more divisions and troops than the Germans. They also had more [and in many cases] better tanks. The Germans had the advantage in aircraft, and anti-tank guns [although the 37mm gun was almost useless. What the Germans DID have over the Allies was battled tested troops, superior doctrine and leadership, close air support, and a superior tank to tank, and intra-tank communications system.

At dawn on May 10th, 1940, the Luftwaffe attacked all the Allied airfields in eastern France. At the same time the German Army attacked Belgium and Holland - and began moving the seven Panzer divisions through the Ardennes, followed by mobile infantry, and infantry.

As soon as the Germans began their attack, French and British units moved into Belgium to take up position on the Dyle River. They didn't seem to notice that aside from reconnaissance flights, the Luftwaffe left them alone. By the 13th they were engaged. And then the roof fell in.

The Germans arrived on the Meuse on the evening of May 12th. that night, near Dinant, a newly minted Panzer Division commander named Erwin Rommel found a weir, and took his division across the river. Further south, at Sedan, after a terrific bombing by von Richtofen's VIIIth Fliegerkorps, Guderian's XIXth Panzer Corps forced the river. Corap's French 9th Army disintegrated. With no reserves, the Germans had an almost unimpeded route to the Channel, and the Allies' encirclement.

The next six days saw the Panzer commanders doing battle with their higher headquarters [they wanted the armor to slow down until infantry could arrive and cover the flanks], and intermittent attempts by the Allies to cut the corridor. Two attempts by the French were beaten off to the south. But on the 21st, a more serious attack developed to the north, undertaken by the British. They attacked the 7th Panzer [Rommel] south of Amiens. Their Matilda II tanks were almost impervious to the German tank guns and anti-tank guns. Arriving on the scene, Rommel took command of a battery of 88 mm anti-aircraft guns, and using them in the anti-tank role, broke the British attack [This may have been the first time 88s,the most famous artillery piece of WW II, were used as anti tank guns ( although I've read, in one source that Ritter von Thoma did it in Spain). Rommel would do it repeatedly again - with a vengeance].

The attack sent a shockwave through the German High Command, and the Panzers were halted for 24 hours. That delay cost the Germans one Channel port. Dunkirk. And the BEF and thousands of French troops escaped, sans equipment, escaped because of it. In that sense Case Yellow failed.

But as the Germans regrouped for the second phase of the invasion, FALL ROTE [Case Red], along the Seine and Aisne Rivers, they now outnumbered the Allies facing them. After initially tough resistance, Rommel again led the way, and broke through the western end of the Allied line. Guderian crossed behind the German Army and attacked further east , coming down BEHIND the Maginot Line, while Army Group 'C' made some attacks to it's front.

On May 18th, the German Army paraded through Paris, an open city. By the 20th, the 2d SS, DAS REICH was on the Spanish border, Petain had replaced the French government, and France had requested an Armistice. That armistice was signed in a railway car at the forest of Compegnie. It was the same location, and the same railway car where German had signed the armistice ending WWI. Hitler, and Germany's triumph was complete.

And yet, Yellow's success bore seeds of doom for the Reich. Hitler, as well as his generals lost sight of the fact that Yellow worked because they attacked a reasonably finite, geographically speaking, area of developed roads and rail. Even then, the non-motorized  infantry had trouble keeping up with the mechanized forces [the German Army was over 90% horse dependent for transport, artillery movement, etc., and almost all the infantry was 'leg']. Those conditions would not be present when, a year to the day after the French surrender, Hitler launched BARBAROSSA, the invasion of the Soviet Union. And the Germans would pay dearly for that oversight. Still, IMHO, Case Yellow was the second greatest military campaign in history.

It was an operation based on steadily decreasing assets, ordered by a man desperate for the German Navy to win glory before being eclipsed by the Army in BARBAROSSA, commanded by an Admiral opposed to sailing without waiting for reinforcements, and possibly clinically depressed.

The initial concept for the Rhine Exercise arose from the earlier Exercise BERLIN. For over two months, the German battlecruisers SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU [9x11" guns]had raided commerce in the Atlantic, sinking some 22 ships. The success was muted by their standing orders to avoid engaging convoy heavy escorts, i.e. Battleships or Battlecruisers, which the British, with a surfeit of WW I era ships were able to post to most convoys. SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU's victims had been either single ships, or ships from a dispersed convoy.

So Grand Admiral Raeder decided on a new plan. He would send a squadron into the Atlantic to commerce raid. From Brest, France, where they had steamed to after BERLIN, the SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU. From the Baltic, after working up, the heavy cruiser PRINZ EUGEN [8x8" guns], and the battleship BISMARCK [8x 15" guns]. It was Raeder's intent that BISMARCK would engage any enemy battleship with a convoy while the battlecruisers and PRINZ EUGEN went after the merchant ships. And from his point of view, the plan had merit. BISMARCK was the post powerful FAST battleship in Europe. She was heavily armored, weighing some 53,000 tons loaded, but had modern 15" guns superior to anything in the Royal Navy. At a top speed of over 30 knots, she could outrun any battleship in the British Navy, including NELSON and RODNEY [9x 16" guns], but a top speed of 23 knots. The only ship in the Royal Navy capable of catching BISMARCK was H.M.S. HOOD [8x 15" guns], a World War I era battlecruiser, and the largest ship in the fleet.

But occasionally, the plan doesn't take in the variables. SCHARNHORST needed major repairs in Brest, and both she and GNIESENAU suffered bomb damage. the RHINE Exercise, at a stroke was reduced to one battleship and a heavy cruiser.

The fleet commander for the RHINE Exercise was Admiral Guenther Lutjens, who had just returned in March from commanding Exercise Berlin. Lutjens had had a busy war by 1941. He had commanded SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU in Norway, during the opening of the WESER Exercise. He had commanded them again in Exercise BERLIN. Now he was tasked with yet another commerce raid.

Lutjens balked. He wanted the operation postponed until either the battlecruisers were ready [July], or until BISMARCK's sister ship, TIRPITZ completed her work up [The Captain of BISMARCK, Ernst Lindemann refused to follow the naval tradition of referring to ships as 'she'. He directed that the crew, and always did himself, refer to BISMARCK as "He".

Raeder refused to wait. So on 18 May, 1941, PRINZ EUGEN slipped her berth and steamed west. In the early morning of May 19th, BISMARCK joined her, sailing from Gotenhafen [now Gdynia]. Both ships then proceeded through the Kattegat and Skaggerak, heading for Norway. During the trip, they were spotted by the Swedish cruiser Gotland. the sighting was passed the same day to the British Naval attache, who alerted London. Any hope of surprise was now gone.

The German ships anchored in Bergen Fjord, where they were spotted, and photographed, by a Spitfire reconnaissance plane specifically sent to look for them. While they were there, the weather deteriorated and heavy fog rolled in. Lutjens ordered the flotilla to head out.

Lutjens neither sought advice from, nor brought Lindemann into his plans. He was remote from the crew and officers of BISMARCK. And during the hiatus in Bergen, he did something, or to be more accurate, didn't do something that bordered on the unusual. Although PRINZ EUGEN topped off her fuel bunkers, BISMARCK did not. So BISMARCK was leaving on an operation where he would have to refuel the cruiser from his own fuel supply, and that supply was several hundred, if not more tons low.

LUTJENS had a tanker pre-positioned near the northern tip of Norway. But instead of sailing there, he turned west, taking advantage of the foul weather,intending to run the Denmark Strait, as he had in Exercise BERLIN. It didn't work out the way he'd hoped.

As soon as the Royal Navy's Home Fleet Commander, Admiral John Tovey, got word that two large German warships were in the Skaggerak, he assumed one of them was BISMARCK, and that both of them would be attempting to break into the Atlantic. Since there were at least four different ways to do this, Tovey covered all of them with cruisers, and sent HOOD and one of the new KING GEORGE V class battleships, PRINCE OF WALES [10x 14" guns] to cover the Denmark Strait.

During the night of May 23rd, two British cruisers, NORFOLK and SUFFOLK picked up the German squadron on radar, and visually. In an attempt to deal with them, BISMARCK fired his main guns, knocking out his forward gunnery radar while doing so. At they point the two German ships changed station, with PRINZ EUGEN taking the lead, and BISMARCK following. They were in that formation when, in the lightening skies of pre-dawn, they sighted HOOD and PRINCE OF WALES.

Lutjens had several advantages. The British, coming from the east, were backlit by the rising sun. The German ships, to the west, and with Greenland behind them, were masked by darker skies. The Germans had traveled faster than estimated, so they were a little ahead of the British. Admiral Lancelot Holland, on HOOD, had hoped to cross Lutjens' "T". The Germans would come close to crossing theirs. And then there were the ships. Although, on paper, HOD appeared to be the measure of BISMARCK, she wasn't. BISMARCK's newer 15" rifles could fire three salvos for every two of HOOD's. Her fire control system was much more sophisticated and just plain better. BISMARCK was much more heavily armored, and just as fast [BISMARCK was at least two knots faster than PoW] Additionally, PoW [PRINCE OF WALES] had extremely complex turrets [two with four 14" guns, one with two] and had civilian workmen on board trying to fix them. The ace in the hole, however, was PRINZ EUGEN. Aside from the same advantages [in fire control], she also had her radar working, and more importantly, her layout and silhouette was virtually the same [albeit smaller] than BISMARCK.

That was crucial, because the British, who could only fire their forward guns, opened up on PRINZ EUGEN. BISMARCK was left alone for almost two minutes while they did so. PRINZ EUGEN took HOOD, the lead ship, under fire, and scored hits on the superstructure, and a small gun battery, starting a fire. She also passed her firing data to BISMARCK.

Lutjens was loath to open fire, even though the British had realized their mistake and switched their fire. Declaiming he was about to have his ship shot out from under his ass, LINDEMANN ordered BISMARCK to open fire. At the same time Adm. Holland began turning to avoid plunging fire. As he did BISMARCK's fifth salvo sent a round into the rear powder magazine, the explosion sent a column of fire several hundred feet in the  air, and through the ventilation system to the forward magazines, blowing them as well, HOOD broke in pieces and sunk with her bow up. There were three survivors.

BISMARCK now turned her attention to PoW. PoW suffered heavy damage, one round killing everyone on the bridge, except CPT. Leach. PoW broke off action and left under smoke. She had, however, hit BISMARCK at least four times. And one of those rounds flooded one of BISMARCK's oil bunkers, polluting the fuel, and causing a trail of leaked oil to follow the ship. It was now that Lutjens' decision not to top off in Bergen came back to bite him. To reach France, he had to reduce his top speed to 27 knots. He could no longer outrun British KGV battleships. Lutjens slipped  the cruisers, and Pow that night, detaching PRINZ EUGEN to break out into the Atlantic, and headed for Brest. The Royal Navy pulled ships off convoy duty, and from as far away as Gibralter to join in the hunt. then, on the 25th, Lutjens sent a long, pointless wireless signal to Germany. British intercepts relayed the WRONG position to Tovey. By the time the mistake was realized, it was apparent, absent a miracle, BISMARCK would reach France.

That miracle was Fairey Swordfish double winged, wood and cloth torpedo bombers flying off ARK ROYAL. After an initial mishap, they found and attacked BISMARCK. His radar controlled anti-aircraft guns  couldn't target planes moving that slowly, and one torpedo hit the stern, locking BISMARCK's rudders in a turning position. Additionally, because of the hole, the Bismarck had to steer into the wind, which took her to the British. BISMARCK was doomed.

The final confrontation took place next morning. Tovey had KING GEORGE V [10x 14" guns], RODNEY [9x 16" guns]  several cruisers and destroyers. Both KGV and Rodney scored early hits. BISMARCK fired near RODNEY's bow, but her fire fell off rapidly, as CDR Adelbert Schneider was killed early in the action and the forward turrets were put out of action. The rear turrets soon followed. BISMARCK's entire superstructure was on fire, and Lutjens and Lindemann were both dead, most likely from a shell from RODNEY.

Tovey running low on fuel, and with RODNEY's guns developing mechanical problems from firing at close range, ordered the DORSETSHIRE, a cruiser, to finish BISMARCK off [BISMARCK's colors were still flying]. The two battleships had fired some 400 rounds at BISMARCK. On the German ship, two orders were issued, Scuttle, and abandon ship. Both were obeyed. of a crew of approximately 2,250, a total of 115 were saved [ The British suspended rescue operations when someone thought he saw a U-boat. The RHINE Exercise was over.

Once again.....thank you Pzldr!

In April, 1941, Adolf Hitler was forced to invade Greece as a result of the maladroitness of his erstwhile ally, Benito Mussolini. The previous autumn, Mussolini in a fit of pique over Hitler's failure to consult over military operations the Germans had undertaken, and on the fly, with little planning, invaded Greece from Albania. It was a disaster. the Greeks not only drove the Italians back, but the attack allowed the British to send troops into Europe for the first time since 1940 in France.

Hitler who was concerned with British air power being in range of his principal source of oil, the Ploesti oilfields of Romania, and with having nothing interfere with his forthcoming invasion of the Soviet Union ordered troops into Greece from Bulgaria [Operation  MARITA] at the same time he invaded Yugoslavia from Austria and Romania [Operation PUNISHMENT]. By the time the smoke had cleared, the Greek military had surrendered, and the Greek government, along with 30,000 Commonwealth and Greek troops under New Zealand Gen.Bernard Freyburg had evacuated to the island of Crete. The stage was set for the first airborne invasion in history.

The commander of the German Fallschirmjaeger [Airborne] was Luftwaffe General [formerly an Army artilleryman] named Kurt Student. Student had been with the German airborne since its creation in the mid-1930s, and had achieved spectacular successes in the campaign in the West in 1940. German paratroopers had captured vital bridges in the Netherlands at the start of case YELLOW, allowing the 9th Panzer Division to knife quickly into Holland with little delay. 80 German glider borne [also part of the airborne]engineers also landed on the fortress of Eben Emael, the linchpin of the Belgian defense line on the Albert Canal, and using shaped charges for the first time in modern warfare [and a plan supposedly conceived by Hitler himself], captured the fort and 2,500 prisoners.

Operation MERKUR was Student's first operation since 1940, inasmuch as Student had been seriously wounded in the Netherlands in a friendly fire incident with the LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER. Now recovered from his wounds, he set Operation MERKUR for May 20th.

The plan involved the two major components of Student's airborne forces, the 7th Parachute Division, and the 22d Air Landing division, an army infantry unit assigned to Student's force that was carried in by Junkers  Ju-52 transport planes. There were also army units to be ferried to Crete in a flotilla of small boats, a la the British rescue mission at Dunkirk. There was no German naval presence. Support for the invasion would be all aircraft, with the Luftwaffe flying sorties with some 150 Junkers Ju-87 Stukas, and fighter cover from Messerschmitt Me-109s.

The plan was itself, fairly simple. The 7th Parachute would drop onto the three principal airfields in northern Crete, which when secured, would allow the 22 Air Landing Division to be flown in to augment the attack force, while seaborne infantry would also bolster the Airborne's offensive punch [there was no German armor allocated for the invasion.

Yet even the simplest plan can go awry. In the case of MERKUR, the problems were threefold: First, German intelligence SEVERELY underestimated Allied strength on Crete. Second, the Royal Navy appeared in force, which the Germans did not expect. Third, and most importantly, thanks to Ultra, the British knew the entire German plan, and were ready for them.

Needless to say, the initial drop resulted in severe losses on the part of the German paratroopers [It didn't help that, unlike Allied airborne units,  German paratroopers only jumped with pistols and knives, with all their rifles, machineguns and submachine guns dropped in canister, to be retrieved in the drop zone]. The naval reinforcements fared even worse. It reached the point that the 7th was almost out of reserves, and the 22d couldn't lift off because they had nowhere to land.

And then the Germans got a break. A fairly junior British Army officer withdrew fro a hill overlooking the western most airfield, at Maleme. The Germans immediately occupied the high ground, and controlled the airfield. Almost immediately the 22d Air Landing Division began shuttling in from Greece. With reinforcements, the Germans began to advance east to link up with the other elements of the 7th Parachute, and to the southeast, in pursuit of the Commonwealth troops.

Once again, it appeared a seaborne evacuation might be necessary. But this time it would be all Royal Navy. And this time the Luftwaffe was more than ready. The Royal Navy lost several cruisers and destroyers in evacuating Crete. And as the Germans advanced the evacuation required more speed, more ships, more time on station, and resulted in more sinkings.

Eventually the evacuation was completed. But some 18,000 Commonwealth troops were captured by the Germans, and the island was taken, from the air. A special cuff band "KRETA" was authorized for the German personnel who had participated in the operation [including former heavyweight boxing champion Max Schmeling]. But it was the last hurrah of major German airborne operations. Except for small, usually battalion size operations [Russia, the Ardennes offensive, an SS airborne op in Yugoslavia], Hitler forbade such operations, and used his elite airborne divisions as 'leg' infantry for the rest of the war. To be sure they achieved great things on defense [Monte Casino, Normandy], but they never jumped into glory after Crete.

It started as an argument between Philip Sheridan, commander of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac, and that Army's commander, George Gordon Meade. Meade was re-purposing his Cavalry to perform as it had in the old days, broken up into sub-units, and assigned to picket, escort and courier duties. Sheridan was having none of it. As the argument increased in loudness and bellicosity, Sheridan declaimed that if Meade would let him loose, he would thrash Confederate Maj. Gen, James Ewell Browning "JEB" Stuart, commander of the Cavalry Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. When Meade went tio complain to General in Chief U.S. Grant, and repeated Sheridan's taunt, Grant replied that Sheridan usually did what he said he would, and directed Meade to turn him loose.

The operation began on May 11th. Sheridan led his cavalry, comprising three divisions, and over 10,000 horsemen south by southeast toward Richmond's outer works. They traveled at a leisurely pace, since Sheridan  wanted to give Stuart plenty of time to engage him.

JEB Stuart had had an interesting war. He had led the charge that drove the Union troops back at Bull Run. He had ridden around the Army of the Potomac twice, the first time during the Peninsular campaign, providing Robert E. Lee with the critical intelligence he needed to win the battle. Stuart had assumed command of the Rebel IId Corps at Chancellorsville after Stonewal Jackson's wounding, and conducted the battle on Lee's left until Hooker withdrew.

But all did not go as Stuart hoped. He desperately wanted to be promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General, as all the Corps commanders in the Confederate Army were. He hoped, based on his performance at Chancellorsville, that he would be given command of the IId Corps after Jackson died. Neither of those hopes were realized. Richard S. Ewell was given  IID Corps. To add insult to injury, Lee created a IIId Corps, but gave command to A.P. Hill. Stuart remained with the Cavalry Corps, and with the rank of Major General.

And things got worse from there. On June 9th, 1863, the day after a review of his Corps by Lee at Fleetwood Hill, near Brandy Station, Stuart was surprised by a full scale attack by the Union Cavalry Corps under Union Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton. The battle, the largest Cavalry engagement ever fought in North America. By the end of the day Stuart, with infantry support, held the field. But the Union troopers had ascertained that Lee's army was moving north - to, eventually - Gettysburg. And, more importantly, they had destroyed the myth of invincibility that Stuart and his troopers had held over them since the beginning of the war.

And then came the Gettysburg campaign. Stung, perhaps, by the vitriol in the Southern press over Brandy Station, Stuart construed Lee's typically broad orders with the widest latitude, cut loose, and appeared to try another ride around the Army of the Potomac. It was a fiasco. Tactically, it was a mixed bag. Stuart won some, but he lost some. the newly confident Union Horse hounded him, blocked him, and offered battle at every turn. Operationally, and strategically, Sturart's operations were a failure. While it was true he had left Lee sufficient cavalry to guard his right flank, and prevent Union troops from observing his movement north, Stuart did not leave Lee with sufficient troops to do offensive reconnaissance. Lee had no clue where the Army of the Potomac was until he stumbled into them [ironically enough John Buford's cavalry brigade] at Gettysburg.

Stuart did not arrive until the afternoon of the second day of the battle. He brought with him exhausted men and spent horses. He also brought some 100 wagons he had captured [which had further slowed him]. They turned out to be of great value when Lee had to evacuate his wounded on July 4th.

On July 3d, Stuart was to the left rear of the Union positions riding east. At Runnel's Farm he ran into McGregg's 2d Cavalry Division, and the Michigan Brigade, under newly minted Brigadier General George Armstrong Custer. By the time the smoke cleared, Stuart had been stopped, and then driven from the field.

Stuart admirably covered the retreat from Pennsylvania, skirmishing with, and stopping, Union Cavalry probes. With the rest of Lee's Army, absent a vigorous pursuit by Meade, he went into winter quarters. But now it was Spring. and Phil Sheridan was on the move.

It developed pretty much as Sheridan envisaged. Stuart's command was split. Stuart and at least two brigades rose, at speed to get ahead of the leisurely marching Sheridan, while other regiments, riding behind the Union Cavalry Corps, attacked the rear.

Stuart chose to make his stand at a crossroads near a place in front of the Richmond defenses called Yellow Tavern. He deployed on high ground on two wooded ridgelines, at almost a 90 degree angle, and in front  of the left ridge. The attack opened as a probe, with Custer's brigade in front. Deploying a portion of his brigade to fight on foot [an increasingly common Union tactic, since their Spencer carbines gave each brigade the firepower of a Confederate Infantry division] Custer reconnoitered the ridge on Stuart's right, and then attacked. The battle see-sawed, with Union Cavalry breaking into Stuart's  right. During one of the Rebel counterthrusts, as some of Custer's men were retreating on foot, one fired off a round at a rebel officer he saw sitting on a horse. Then he kept retreating.

The round caught Stuart in the side, and almost knocked him out of the saddle. Despite his furious protests ["I'd rather die than be whipped"- and it turned out both happened], Stuart was taken from the field in an ambulance to a nearby house. He died the next day. Sheridan meandered on, after brushing aside the defense at Yellow Tavern, viewed the Richmond defenses as too formidable for a cavalry attack, and having fulfilled his goal of whipping Stuart, turned west to the Union lines.

Stuart was mourned throughout the South. Lee supposedly wept. In a bitter side note, Stuart's successor as commander of the Cavalry Corps of the Army  of Northern Virginia, finished the war as a Lieutenant General.

On the morning of May 27th, 1942 SS Obergruppenfuehrer [SS Lt. General] Reinhard Heydrich was in a hurry. The head of the Reichssicherheithauptamt [RSHA], the amalgam of the Reichs Security Police [Gestapo and Criminal Police and the SS SD], and Acting Reichsprotecktor of Bohemia-Moravia [the current Czech Republic], he was due in Berlin to brief Adolf Hitler on affairs in the country he had governed since the previous September. He would never conduct that briefing.

Heydrich had been born into a well to do family in Wilhelmine Germany. His father was a composer, musician and fairly well known opera singer, who had founded the Halle Music Conservatory. Heydrich himself was a talented violinist [he was also a highly rated fencer], and conversant in at least five languages.

Heydrich had joined the German Navy in the mid-1920s, becoming a signals officer, and serving, for a time, under the future Admiral [and rival] Wilhelm Canaris. What looked like a successful Naval career foundered on a weakness for the flesh. Engaged to one young woman, Lina Van Osten, Heydrich became involved with another, who assumed Heydrich intended to marry her. When he didn't offer for her hand, she had a nervous breakdown. Her outraged father, who must have been a man of some substance, went to the head of the German Navy, Grand Admiral Raeder, who ordered a board of inquiry. Heydrich's refusal to take any responsibility, and his attempt to shift the blame to the girl, adversely impacted the Board to the degree that they recommended, and Raeder did, Heydrich's dismissal from the Navy.

So, in 1931, Heydrich with no job, and no acceptable prospects, joined at his wife's urging the NSDAP, and through the offices of a family friend, secured a job interview with Heinrich Himmler, Reichsfuehrer SS. Himmler was looking to establish an SS intelligence service [at the time almost ALL Nazi organizations had an intelligence operation, to spy on 'enemies', and each other]. Himmler, apparently believed Heydrich had been a Naval intelligence officer, and asked him to outline such an organization in some 20 minutes. Heydrich, who enjoyed spy novels did just that. Himmler hired him, and the unholy alliance that would rock Europe was born. So was the Sicherheitsdienst [SD], the SS Security service.

Heydrich rose rapidly from SS Lieutenant to Major in some six months. His organization became, at Hitler's order, the SOLE intelligence agency of the NSDAP. And after the seizure of power, his rise accelerated. When Himmler was made Chief of the Bavarian Police, Heydrich became Chief of their political section [It was here that Heydrich recruited from the ranks the officers: Stoettel, Huber and 'Gestapo' Mueller who would be the RSHA heavyweights]. As Himmler acquired more police forces, Heydrich went along as his deputy, culminating in 1936, when Himmler was named Chief of the German Police. Heydrich then moved to Berlin, assuming command, first of the Gestapo, and then also, of the Criminal Police [in 1940, Heydrich would be chief of INTERPOL], while still maintaining control of the SD.

Heydrich was actively involved in several of the German scandals of the '30s. He helped organize the Night of the Long Knives, falsifying evidence, and directing, with Himmler and Goering, the murder squads in Berlin. He fabricated evidence of homosexuality that was used to force Gen. Fritsch out as commander of the German Army [he was opposed to some of Hitler's plans]. He organized [for the first time] Einsatzkommandos for the Anschluss of Austria, and oversaw arrests and anti-Semitic activities in that country. And he planned, and executed the prevarication that served as Germany's attack on Poland, the Gleiwitz Radio station incident.

Heydrich had a busy war. He deployed a total of five Einsatatzgruppen into Poland to murder the potential leadership of future opposition to the Reich, and Polish Jews. They were so brutal, the military governor of Poland, General Blaskowitz complained all the way up to Hitler. Hitler, perfectly satisfied with Heydrich's mens' performance, pardoned them, and relieved Blaskowitz [who was never promoted again. It was in October, 1939, that the RSHA was established.

Heydrich spent the Spring of 1940, flying an Me 110 in the Norwegian campaign [he was a Reserve major in the Luftwaffe]. Back at his desk, he worked on Jewish policy, and plans for the SS police participation in the forthcoming Russian campaign.

Heydrich sent four Einsatzgruppen into Russia, one each with Army Group North and Center, and two with Army Group South. Heydrich ,himself, flew an Me 109 in the opening stages of Barbarossa, but was shot down behind Russian lines. He was rescued, and forbidden from flying again. By Spring, 1942, the four Einsatzgruppen had murdered about one million people, mostly Jews, Russian commissars and Gypsies in the East, with Heydrich [and Himmler] frequently touring the areas and on-site for some of the executions.

In September, 1941, Heydrich reached his zenith, he was appointed Deputy [and de facto] Reichsprotecktor of  Bohemia-Moravia, replacing Konstantin von Neurath. Bohemia-Moravia was extremely important to the Germans. the Skoda works produced weapons and other military gear for the Germans. A general strike called from 14-21 September had led to Neurath's removal. Heydrich was the result.

Heydrich responded with his usual brutality. Martial law was declared, mass arrests and a number of executions followed. But it wasn't the same old game. Heydrich decided to co-opt the Czechs. He increased worker rations and goods. He gave the Czechs the same 'Strength Through Joy' vacations, social activities, etc., that German workers had [though not to the same degree]. He cracked down on black marketeers [whom the Czechs hated], and conducted public trials and executions of them. And martial law was rescinded, and the arrests went way down. It appeared Heydrich's approach had worked. The Czechs seemed docile [or cowed]. Production increased. By later that fall, Heydrich was able to split his time between Prague and Berlin. By January, 1942, he was hosting the Wannsee conference to plan the industrial slaughter of the Holocaust.

Heydrich's success with the Czechs did not go unnoticed in London, either by the Czech government in exile, nor the British. The British were extremely unhappy with what they perceived to be minimal Czech resistance to the German occupation, and the degree of Czech armament, of the German Army [In 1940, Rommel's 7th Panzer Division was primarily equipped with Czech tanks]. They were pressuring President Benes [note: Since my keyboard doesn't contain Czech accent marks, I'll be doing the best I can] to do something major. To up the ante, the British government had not renounced the Munich Pact, leaving the Czech government in exile to wonder if theuir homeland would be ceded to the Germans when peace came.The British SOE, fighting a rear guard against MI6, wanted to do something spectacular. That 'something spectacular' was the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. In point of fact, SOE planned the attack, and gave it to Benes. The Czechs were to furnish the assassins. SOE would supply logistical support, weapons and transport to Bohemia-Moravia. the Czech underground was neither consulted with, nor informed of, the mission. It appears that both SOE and Benes expected massive German reprisals if the operation succeeded, and both were willing for those reprisals to happen, in the expectation that a mass uprising would result.

The assassins were two volunteers from the Czech Brigade, Josef Gabcik, and Jan Kubis. After training in Britain, they were airdropped in December, 1941. Landing far from their drop zone, they eventually arrived in Prague and spent their time moving from safe house to safe house, and reconnoitering Heydrich's suburban estate, the route from there to Prague, and the roads in Prague to the Prague castle that was Heydrich's headquarters. They found a hairpin turn where Heydrich would have to slow down, and decided that would be the kill zone. Gabcik was equipped with two grenade like bombs. Kubis had a STEN gun. A third man, stationed uphill acted as a lookout.

Heydrich referred to his subjects as 'My Czechs', and apparently believed none would hurt. So he traveled in an open convertible limousine  with just a driver. No escort. No guards. that day, after playing with his two sons, Heydrich left home at ten. Fifteen miles later, the warning signal was given, and Kubis pulled out his STEN as Heydrich came around the corner. Heydrich, seeing Kubis, and assuming he was alone, ordered his driver to stop, while pulling his gun. It was a mistake that would cost Heydrich his life.

Kubis' gun jammed without firing a shot. But Gabcik, unseen, threw one of the bombs. It landed short, to the passenger side rear. the detonation sent horsehair and schrapnel from the seat into Heydrich's back. Gabcik fled from the driver, bicycling downhill. Kubis fled uphill with Heydrich in pursuit, until Heydrich collapsed on the ground. Kubis then got away.

Heydrich was taken to the hospital where, at midnight he was operated on. At first, he seemed to recover, but peritonitis set in. Since the Germans had no access to penicillin, he was doomed. Reinhard Heydrich died on June 4th, at the age of 38 , and received the largest funeral ever conducted in the Third Reich. The storm that Benes and SOE soon followed. The Germans mounted massive raids. It became apparent that the two assassins had been lax regarding their security in the five months before the assassination.The result was that the Germans were able to uproot and effectively destroy the Czech underground, which had begged Benes to call off the operation before the killing. At least 2,000 Czechs lost their lives. Two towns, one being Lidice, were razed. The Holocaust was stepped up, and by 1943, some 2 million Jews had died in "Aktion Reinhardt".

If the flutter of a butterfly's wings [or lack thereof] can change evolution, the gnat stings of Doolittle Raiders' 16 B-25 bombers on Tokyo, and three other Japanese cities changed the course of World War II. While the physical damage was slight, the psychological damage was great. The enemy [us] had bombed Tokyo - where the Emperor not only lived, but was present during the raid. The 'loss of face' was immense, and required a response; one that would expand the perimeter of Japan's Empire, safeguard the homeland, and, hopefully, bring about the decisive battle that had been the core of Japanese naval doctrine since the 1920s.

The doctrine of the decisive battle had been one of the results of Togo's destruction of the Russian fleet at Tsushima in 1905. Positing the U.S. as its greatest potential enemy and threat, the Imperial Japanese Navy [IJN], developed a strategy that, at its base, assumed a battle with the U.S. fleet in Japanese home waters, with the Japanese victorious. But by Spring, 1942, that battle, in that location did not seem likely. Japan had achieved her initial strategic and operational goals. The U.S. fleet had been downsized, if not neutralized, The western perimeter had been pushed out to the Philippines. the drive south had netted Malaya, Singapore, and the object of the war, the Dutch East Indies and its oil. Japanese armies were clearing Burma, and driving toward India. And now Doolittle.

The Japanese reaction was a plan complex even by Japanese standards. It had more moving parts than a Swiss watch. And as most things the Japanese planned, it involved compromises between the IJN and Imperial Japanese Army [IJA] that did nothing to guarantee the success of the principle objective, lure the U.S Pacific fleet out for the 'decisive battle' at a place of the IJN's choosing, destroy  it, and force the U.S to sue for peace.

The place chosen as the bait was the U.S held island of Midway, roughly halfway between the Hawaiian and Home Islands. the IJN believed the U.S could not afford to let this flyspeck fall to the Japanese without a major effort to save it. This was curious thinking. Midway had no good harbor to anchor a Japanese fleet to threaten Hawaii. It had an airfield, but was beyond air range of Hawaii for most Japanese planes. What it was was an outpost. But the Commander of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the architect of Pearl Harbor, fixated on it as the solution to all his problems. Yamamoto, a veteran of Tsushima,who had attended Harvard, traveled extensively in America, and knew about American economic power, had promised in pushing the Pearl Harbor operation that he would run wild for six months, but after that, no guarantees. And by May, 1942, he was feeling the time pressure.

The plan initially called for three separate fleets to converge on Midway. The first to arrive would be the First Air Fleet, the KIDO BUTAI [strike force]. They were to bomb Midway, and destroy U.S aircraft carriers expected to arrive the next day from Hawaii.Next up were the occupation fleet and the main battle fleet [mostly battleships, including the world's largest, IJN YAMATO, Yamamoto's flagship]. For secrecy, all three traveled separately, at distance. The result was each was incapable of supporting any of the others.

That was complex enough. But since the Army was to furnish the troops for the occupation, they had to sign off on the operation. There was a price. The Army wanted to invade Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian islands to protect Japan's northern islands. So a small fleet was assembled to do that. Critically, two IJN light carriers were included in that fleet. Still, on paper, it was a formidable plan, led by a Navy with overwhelming preponderance against its enemy [The U.S had NO battleships, a few cruisers and three (the IJN believed two) carriers available]. But looks could be deceiving.

KIDO BUTAI, either in whole or in part, had been almost continually in operation since Pearl Harbor. Two of her carriers had detached on the return to Japan to support the operations at Wake Island. KAGA had been in Japan for maintenance when KIDO BUTAI raided the Indian Ocean. Parts of First Air Fleet had raided Darwin, Australia. Kido Butai's aircraft were worn out, her air crew tired, and no relief was in sight. Production had stopped on the VAL dive bomber. It would soon stop on the KATE torpedo/horizontal bomber. So replacements were getting problematical. Then came the Coral Sea, and a curious twist in IJN doctrine.

As part of their prelude to Midway, and part of a renewed drive to cut Australia off from America, the Japanese moved into the Solomon Islands, particularly Guadalcanal and Tulagi, and prepared to invade Port Morseby, New Guinea. To support this operation, they detached Carrier Division 5, SHOKAKU and ZUIKAKU, their two newest, and most modern carriers and sent them into the Coral Sea, with an invasion fleet and the light carrier SHOHO. By the time the smoke cleared, SHOHO and the U.S.S LEXINGTON were sunk. U.S.S YORKTOWN was severely damaged, and presumed by the Japanese [erroneously] sunk or sinking; in any case written off for Midway. But SHOKAKU was heavily damaged, and had to return to Japan for repairs. ZUIKAKU, while suffering some minor damage, and taken heavy losses in aircraft, and had landed the aircraft from SHOKAKU for the return to Japan. And that was when the quirk in Japanese doctrine kicked in. The Japanese believed firmly, in training air crew with the ship they would be assigned to.  So when she returned to Japan, ZUIKAKU began to take on new levies of pilots for training, while the largely intact, veteran air contingent of SHOKAKU sat on their thumbs. No effort was made to transfer SHOKAKU's air crews to ZUIKAKU, and no effort was made to repair SHOKAKU ant more than a stately pace. Upshot? ZUIKAKU remained in Japan tied to doctrine and her sister ship when she could have been at Midway with a seasoned air contingent.

KIDO BUTAI [Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo commanding] thus sailed to Midway with only four of her six Pearl Harbor carriers: AKAGI and KAGA [Carrier Division 1], and SORYU and HIRYU [Carrier Division 2], two battleships, several cruisers, and several destroyers. Yamamoto followed some 300 miles behind with the battle fleet, while the invasion fleet approached from the west-southwest.

Unfortunately for the Japanese, Yamamoto's counterpart, Admiral Chester Nimitz knew exactly where the Japanese were going, the general directions their fleets were coming from, a rough idea of their timetable, and even the Aleutians venture. He knew it because he was reading their coded messages, compliments of CMD. Rouchefort's code breakers and a ruse. The Americans originally knew the Japanese were planning to attack "AT". Rouchefort had Midway send a signal in a code he knew the Japanese had broken, saying their water distilling plant was on the fritz. When that information showed up in a Japanese message about "AT", Nimitz had his target.

The Americans had three carriers available to sally to Midway: Two sailed immediately [HORNET and ENTERPRISE], under Admiral Raymond Spruance. YORKTOWN, under [senior] Admiral Jack Fletcher followed soon after. They took position at 'Point Lucky', northeast of Midway well before Nagumo got in range. They moved so fast, they by-passed what would be an IJN submarine reconnaissance screen before it formed, in anticipation of Yamamoto's timetable for the U.S. fleet movements. Additionally, a Japanese plan to fly two long range flying boats to Pirate Frigate Shoals for re-fueling from a sub, before flying on to reconnoiter Pearl Harbor [they had used the same technique to raid it earlier] was scrapped when U.S warships were spotted patrolling the shoal by the submarine. Since he was not told of this failure, Nagumo assumed the carriers were still at Pearl when they were at Point Lucky.

In addition to the carriers, Midway was itself beefed up with B-17s, and a variety of fighter planes and other aircraft. And after the occupation fleet was sighted by a PBY, they flew off the island to attack. Some of the fighters also attempted to stop Nagumo's first wave attack on the island, with some success. They were successful enough that the airstrike commander, JOICHI Tomanaga Radioed Nagumo, requesting a second strike on Midway. Thus began the almost perpetual arming/rearming of the bomber aircraft of the Strike Force, accompanied by jumbled radio messages from Nagumo's air scouts that first reported U.S ships, and then carriers to Nagumo's northeast. Almost at the same time, the Strike force began suffering the intermittent attentions of U.S aircraft, culminating in the Torpdeo bomber attack that left Ensign George Gay in the water, and the rest of the squadron shot down.

A Japanese destroyer, having fallen behind to deal with a U.S submarine, hurried, at top speed to rejoin the fleet. His wake attracted the attention of CMDR. Wade McClusky, who followed him back to KIDO BUTAI. At the same time Leslie's dive bombers also arrived. Below them were three Japanese aircraft carriers, AKAGI, KAGA and SORYU [HIRYU was hidden in a rain squall]. And the Japanese combat air patrol of Zeros was down on the deck, having shot down the last of the torpedo bombers. And the Zeros had proved less than effective, inasmuch as their only really good weapon, their 30mm cannon, needed frequent re-loading, and their machine guns were far too 'light' for shooting down planes.

After an initial mix-up the U.S dive bombers attacked. KAGA was hit by two bombs and burst into flames [munitions and fuel scattered loosely on the flight decks and hangar decks -enclosed on the Japanese carriers- added significantly to the destruction], AKAGI was also a sea of fire. SORYU was soon to sink. It took five minutes for 3/4 of KIDO BUTAI to be rendered hors de combat.

But Nagumo was not completely de-fanged. One carrier remained, HIRYU, and on its bridge was possibly Japan's greatest aircraft carrier Admiral, Tamon Yamaguchi. Yamaguchi immediately launched an airstrike with what he had. They found the recently repaired YORKTOWN, and savaged it. Seeing it in flames, the attack squadron returned to HIRYU convinced they had sunk her. They hadn't. U.S fire control was far superior to its IJN counterpart, and YORKTOWN's fires were brought under control. She was made seaworthy again.

Yamaguchi ordered another strike against what he believed was a single remaining carrier. Joichi Tomanga, the strike commander refused a new plane, although his was damaged to the point it was a one -way mission for him. The Japanese found the Yorktown again, but because the previous damage was no longer discernible, thought she was a second carrier and attacked her again. Tomanaga, never reached her. He was shot down by Jimmy Thach [inventor of the Thach weave]. His compatriots were more successful. YORKTOWN was crippled [She would be sunk, while in tow, by a Japanese submarine].

As they again returned to HIRYU, Yamaguchi ordered them to eat and rest for a short while before resuming operations. That was when HIRYU's luck ran out. The attack blew her bow off, leaving her innards a sea of flames. She sank that night [Yamaguchi went down with his ship]. So by day's end, KIDO BUTAI had ceased to exist as an aircraft strike force. The Japanese lost four carriers sunk, or scuttled, and some 200 plus highly trained aircrew, which considering the self-imposed limitations on their flight training programs, and the length of time it took to train mechanics in a largely  agrarian society, meant their air efficiency would degrade to a point where in two years, the air battle of the Philippines Sea would be referred to by the Americans as the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". And, except for TAIHO, lost on her maiden voyage [the same battle], Japan never added another full-sized carrier to her fleet [SHINANO aside, as she was used to transport planes, not fight them. And she was sunk on her maiden voyage - by U.S.S ARCHERFISH].

Spruance wisely withdrew as darkness fell, to the east. Yamamoto initially sought to close with his battleships, then thought better and withdrew, after having destroyers torpedo the flaming hulks of AKAGI and KAGA. The next day Spruance again steamed west, and sunk the Jaspanese heavy cruiser MIKUMA, already damaged in a collision with her sister ship IJN MOGAMI. Midway was over.

The Japanese lost over 2,000 seamen, in addition to their ships. They murdered at least three U.S flyers they captured. But their days of running wild were over. But think of the tantalizing 'What ifs?" What if Yamamoto had conceived a far less complicated plan, and sailed one huge fleet to Midway? Would Nimitz have engaged? What if the Japanese had sent SHOKAKU' air arm to sea on ZUIKAKU, increasing Nagumo's air assets by at least 20%, and more importantly, the number of Zeros for CAP? In alike vein, what if the Aleutians operation had been scratched? The two light carriers, between them , carried in the neighborhood of 30 more Zeros. But, we'll never know.

Yamamoto was assassinated by U.S Army Air Corps pilots, flying P-38s, in the following year, while he was on an inspection trip. We knew the route. We were still reading his mail. Nagumo commanded the re-constituted carrier fleet, built around Carrier Division 5 for over a year. He was subsequently relieved and made military governor of Saipan. He committed suicide there in 1944.

Nimitz went on to be one of America's first five stars. Spruance, who should have been, won the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot, and would probably have done far better at Leyte Gulf, than the Admiral [who also made 5 stars]with whom he alternated command, William "Bull" Halsey.

And it all started with a pinprick raid by Jimmy Doolittle and his Raiders.

Churchill's "soft underbelly of Europe" had turned out to be a set of rock hard abs. Having won two arguments in a row with his American Allies, first in invading Sicily, then in sending the British 8th and American 5th armies into Italy, he thought two things. First, he could keep the war effort focused on southern Europe, with hopeful follow up attacks in the Balkans aimed at Poland, and the Greek islands near turkey [in an effort to get the Turks into the war on the Allied side].Second, he hoped to, at a minimum, keep the landing craft earmarked for Anvil-Dragoon [the invasion of Southern France] in the Italian theater[he would succeed to the extent of the landing at Anzio, but no further], and at a maximum, to divert the main war effort from invading northwestern Europe to his Balkans project. Unfortunately for Churchill, he ran into two obstacles, General George C. Marshall, and the Italian campaign he had so vigorously and successfully lobbied for.

George Marshall, and the American high command, had been focused on invading northwest Europe since Hitler's declaration of war on the United States in December, 1941. Marshall had pushed for an invasion in 1942 [replaced by TORCH in North Africa], and in 1943 [replaced by HUSKY [Sicily], and the Italian operation. He refused any further distractions in southern Europe. And for the first time, he got his President to stand firm in spite of Churchill's blandishments.

Nor had the Italian campaign gone well. The Germans had reacted quickly to both the Allied occupation of Sicily, and Italy's defection from the Axis. In Sicily, the Germans had withdrawn the bulk of their troops and equipment by ferry across the Straits of Messina to mainland Italy. In Italy itself, German troops stationed in northern Italy and Germany swept south, disarmed the Italian Army and took control of the entire country, forcing the government to flee south to the Allies.

At that point, Hitler made a fateful choice. Erwin Rommel commanded Army Group 'B' in northern Italy. It appeared he would be given the German command in Italy. His plan was to evacuate the south, and defend north of Rome. Surrendering ground was anathema to Adolf Hitler. And an alternative presented itself. That alternative was Luftwaffe Field Marshal Albert Kesselring.

Kesselring had been overall commander in the South from Rommel's days in Africa. And although he was an air force Field Marshal, Kesselring had been an artilleryman in the German Army before his transfer to the junior service in the 1930s. He was chosen to command in Italy, while Rommel was sent off to inspect the Atlantic Wall, and eventually command the defense in Normandy. It was an inspired choice.

The German defense began well south of Rome,initially against the British moving up Italy's east coast. With a minimum of troops the Germans began to slow the British down. They were aided there, as later elsewhere in Italy, by the terrain. Italy was a defender's dream. The Appennine mountains an north to south dividing the country south of the Po valley almost in half. The rivers tended to run east to west, or west to east across the peninsula. The terrain was mountainous, with a poor road net.

The American 5th Army was to leapfrog up the west coast with an amphibious landing at Salerno, south of Naples. The landings were at the limit of Allied air cover flying from Sicily. Unfortunately for Mark Clark,5th Army commander, Kesselring was anticipating an amphibious assault somewhere where Allied air cover would be available. Of equal misfortune Salerno, like Omaha beach was surrounded by higher ground. And like Omaha beach, German troops were present, in force.

The invasion did not go well. Salerno was subjected to German counterattacks, artillery fire, and heavy Allied losses. Even after the breakout, with 5th Army aligned with 8th Army, but separated by the mountains, and heading up the boot, the campaign was measured in inches, not miles. And then they hit the GUSTAV line.

Kesselring had found possibly the greatest defensive position in Europe, anchored on Monte Cassino. The German command of the heights gave them unimpeded fields of view and fire. The Rapido river,to the Germans right front in front of the foothills, was a formidable obstacle. The result was a series of battles for Monte Cassino, a failed assault across the Rapido, a halting to the Allied advance, re-deployment of 8th Army to its left, the onset of winter and truly horrific weather, and another amphibious landing, this time at Anzio.

Anzio had great potential. For one, it caught the Germans flatfooted. A rapid advance would put 5th Army troops BEHIND the Germans. And Rome was less than 40 miles away.

Unfortunately, to paraphrase Churchill, what they thought was a wildcat being thrown ashore turned out to be a beached whale.The Corps commander, Lucas spent enough time securing the beach to allow Kesselring to react. Soon Lucas was facing sizable German forces, and being shelled by a railroad gun the Alban Hills [Anzio Annie]. And so it became Spring, 1944. Lucas was relieved, and as the weather turned, so did Allied fortunes. Afterattacks by the Free Poles and the French, Monte Cassino, and with it,theGUSTAV line fell. So did several lines behind it. 5th Army then broke out of Anzio. The stage was set for the envelopment and destruction of the majority of German forces in Italy. Enter Mark Wayne Clark.

Mark Clark had been one of the golden boys in George Marshall's little notebook, and had advanced accordingly. He had been Eisenhower's deputy at Plans in the War Department, and his deputy again for TORCH. But Ike had become disenchanted with Clark during Husky, when Clark declined deputying for Patton, or commanding a Corps in 7th Army, preferring the command of the nascent 5th Army, and the potential for promotion that went with it. To say he was ambitious [not a bad thing] was to understate the case. To say he was a glory hound was not far off the mark.

So with Germans before him broken, Germans to his south fleeing north, and American and Allied troops to his south pushing north, the opportunity for a massive encirclement was at hand. So what did Clark do? He basically hung a left and seized Rome [an open city], allowing the German Army to get away and fight another [many another] day.

Rancor against Clark ran wide and deep, especially among the Allied troops. He didn't care. He had liberated the first Axis capital. He had gotten the ink. But the Gods of war can be fickle. Within two days, Clark's personal triumph had been swept from the front page by the Normandy invasion. SIC TRANSIT GLORIA MUNDAE.

[This thread is dedicated to my father, a humble member of the "Greatest Generation", who on June 6th, 1944, walked ashore at that other beach, UTAH]


By the Spring of 1944, it was obvious that the Western Allies were preparing to invade northwestern Europe, the so-called "Festung Europa". The Germans knew it, but what they didn't know was when, or where. What they couldn't agree on was how to defend against it.

The German command structure was somewhat complicated. The OBERBEFEHLSHABER West was Field Marshal Karl Gerd von Rundstedt. Rundstedt was over 65, and was in terms of longevity, the oldest general in the German Army. He had had an active war - until 1942. He had commanded Army Group South in Poland, Army Group 'A' in France, and Army Group South in the first year of Barbarossa. That had ended when he retreated against orders to the Mius River after giving up Rostov in the winter of 1941. But Hitler recalled him soon after and sent him west.

Facing the Allies in Normandy [where the invasion would actually take place] was Army Group 'B' commanded by Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. Well behind the beaches was Panzer Group West, commanded by Geyr von Schweppenberg. This armored reserve was NOT under Rommel's command, and while under Rundstedt's could not be moved without Hitler's permission. Rommel's only armor consisted of the 21st Panzer Division, which was in reserve behind Caen.

The peculiar armor arrangement had come about because of a fundamental disagreement between Rundstedt and Rommel. Rundstedt adopted the classic, as it were, position that the Panzers should be kept in reserve and committed to a counterthrust after the Allies had moved inland. But Rundstedt had last commanded combat operations in 1941, when the Luftwaffe still had absolute air supremacy in Russia. In point of fact, Rundstedt had never been in combat in WW II without absolute air supremacy.

Rommel had. And his position was quite clear. Move the armor close behind the beaches, and drive the Allies into the sea, because Allied Air would make sure no units from the rear would get to the beaches quickly, if at all; and that once the beaches were secure, the Allies would not be driven off. Hence Hitler's compromise decision.

To the northeast, along the Pas de Calais, the Germans had the 15th Army, their strongest. It was amply supplied with armor [including 1st SS Panzer Corps], and infantry. The reason? Pas de Calais was the shortest distance between Britain and the Continent, and OKW assumed that was where the invasion would take place, a belief bolstered by Allied deception operations, which created a phantom "First Army Group" [opposite the Pas de Calais] 'commanded' by the very real Lt. General George S. Patton, Jr [returned from his sojourn in the wilderness after the 'slapping incident' in Sicily]. Patton made conspicuous public appearances, dummy radio networks made plenty of calls, Luftwaffe reconnaissance flights [strangely unhindered] saw depot after depot, and field after field of tanks, jeeps, trucks, fuel barrels, etc. [all dummies]. the Germans bit.

But Hitler [and Rommel] sometime by Spring began to re-consider Normandy as a potential landing site. And Rommel being Rommel began to prepare for the possibility. He planted millions of mines, devised beach obstacles which would force invading troops to land at low tide, created "Rommel's Asparagus" [poles connected at the top by wires with booby traps on them to stop airborne landings. He also moved more troops forward, including a crack Infantry division, which he placed , unknown by the Allies, behind what would be OMAHA BEACH.

On the other side of the Channel, the plan was set. Five divisions [up from an initial three] would land under the command of Gen. Bernard Law Montgomery, on five beaches: In the British sector: GOLD, SWORD, and JUNO. In the American sector, the west end of the invasion: OMAHA  and UTAH. American airborne troops would be dropped behind the beaches to sew confusion and block access to the beaches. British glider troops would seize PEGASUS bridge, to deny the Germans attack lanes from the west.

It was at this point that a key Allied advantage, and Dwight Eisenhower's courage came into -play. The Allies were better able to make long range weather predictions than the Germans, having ships far out at sea. So while the Germans predicted bad weather around June 6th, the Allies saw a short window of opportunity. Ike gave the 'Go' order at the same time Rommel was home on leave for his wife's birthday.

The success of the landings varied. Using so-called "funnies" [specially equipped tanks for mines, etc.], the British, Canadians and Free French had a somewhat easier time than the 1st and 29th Infantry Division troops landing at OMAHA BEACH. Those troops, like their fellows the year before at Salerno, found themselves pinned on a beach overlooked by high ground and fortifications largely undamaged by the naval gunfire supporting the landings [Allied bombers had dropped their payloads BEHIND the German positions], and in a murderous crossfire from MG 42s and 34s. The 4th Infantry Division landing at UTAH, landed a mile to a mile and a half EAST of their landing zone. This proved fortunate, for a reception akin to the 1st and 29th's waited for them where they were supposed to land.

German reaction was haphazard and piecemeal. Many of the senior officers had been conducting a kriegsspiel   away from the front, and raced to get back. Erich Marcks, the LXXXIV Corps commander, and Gen. Dollmann, 7th Army commander died at the front. Germany's only real success was 21st Panzer Division's counterattack at Caen, which denied the city [a D-Day objective] to Montgomery for some three weeks [Monty's fabrications about Caen, when discovered by Eisenhower and the Americans began American disenchantment with the prima donna].Rommel returned to Normandy that evening. It was already too late. Panzergruppe West hadn't moved as soon as the alarm was sounded because Hitler was asleep, no one had the stones to wake him, and the Group could not be moved without his consent, When reserves from out of the battle zone were called up, Rommel proved right about the effect of Allied airpower. The 2nd SS Panzer Division, DAS REICH, called up from the Central Massif where it had been hunting guerillas, took 15 days to accomplish a 3 day march.

By nightfall, the beach head was well established, and the various units were linking up. Artificial harbors ["Mulberries"], towed over and sunk off the beaches allowed supplies to move inland unabated [until a storm destroyed on e of the mulberries. But success came at a cost. OMAHA Beach cost several thousand casualties [Bradley contemplated withdrawing from it in the morning]. But the Allies were ashore, and there to stay. Rommel had been right, drive them off the beaches, or fail. the Germans failed. The liberation of western Europe had begun.
   

Tomorrow is one of the most important days in our history. Great post PzLdr!

Love history. Info in that piece I never knew about. Thank you!

By June 8th, 1940, the Battle of France had begun its final phase. The British had been driven off the continent to lick their wounds and regroup. And off the coast of Norway, the Royal Navy was engaged in undertaking, and supporting the evacuation of the British and French troops of the Allied Expeditionary Force from Norway, where they had been engaged in a losing campaign with the Wehrmacht since April 9th.

Captain Dalrymple-Doyle, of His Majesty's Ship GLORIOUS, a fleet carrier was a man in a hurry that morning. He was in a hurry to get back to the Royal Navy's anchorage at Scapa Flow, so he could attend the court-martial of a much hated subordinate; a court-martial for which he had preferred the charges.

Given permission by the task force commander, GLORIOUS with two destroyers, detached from the fleet, and headed south. But for a man in a hurry, Dalrymple-Doyle acted in a curious manner. Of a total of six boilers, only two were providing power to the ship, the others being cold. Even more curious, despite the fact he was in the vicinity of Norway, and the Luftwaffe, Dalrymple-Doyle had no combat air patrols up covering his ship.

Bletchley Park, home of the ENIGMA code breakers, picked up German naval signals earlier. Those signals indicated that German heavy warships were lurking near Norway. They included the battlecruisers SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU [9x11" guns],, and the heavy cruiser ADMIRAL HIPPER [8x8" guns].

SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU [flying Admiral Wilhelm Marschall's ensign] had been ordered to Norway to attack Allied transports in the Fjords, and prevent the escape of Allied troops. HIPPER was seeking out enemy shipping.

Bletchley passed their intercepts to the Royal Navy, which both disregarded them, and failed to pass them along to their units operating off Norway. That coupled with Dalrymple-Doyle's failure to have all of six boilers fired and no CAP was about to lead to tragedy.

That morning HIPPER stopped, inspected and released a British hospital ship. Later she engaged a British destroyer, H.M.S. GLOWORM. The British ship attacked HIPPER with great ferocity and daring And while Hipper suffered some damage, GLOWORM was sunk [HIPPER's CAPTAIN sent a letter, via the Red Cross, to the Royal Navy recommending GLOWORM's Captain for a posthumous award(Victoria Cross-?) which was then awarded].SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU further north, spotted smoke on the horizon. It was GLORIOUS and her two destroyers.

The German battlecruisers, GNIESENAU initially leading, increased speed, and closed on GLORIOUS. But it was SCHARNHORST, whose early salvos blew a hole in GLORIOUS' flight deck, that drew first blood. GLORIOUS would be flying no aircraft off her flight deck that day. As the Germans closed the range the destroyers made smoke, launched attacks, and did what they could to protect the carrier. But the Germans split duties. GNIESENAU engaged the destroyers, while SCHARNHORST savaged GLORIOUS, and then they switched off. The result was a foregone conclusion. GLORIOUS slowed, stopped and sank. Dalrymple-Doyle went down with his ship. For the first and only time in World War II, a full sized fleet carrier was sunk by a surface ship. Additionally both destroyers were sunk, but not before damaging SCHARNHORST.

German rescue operations were curtailed when they spotted more smoke to their northeast. At that time, the Germans broke off, and headed to Norway. Eventually they returned to Germany [as did HIPPER] for repairs.

Admiral Marschall received no kudos for his actions. Indeed he was dressed down for failing to follow the orders Grand Admiral Raeder had given him. That dressing down had long term repercussions. German Admirals operating at sea became loath to demonstrate any independence, and Admiral Lutjens' literal adherence to orders in the opening of the Battle of the Denmark Strait might well have led to BISMARCK's sinking, but for the intervention of BISMARCK's Captain, Ernst Lindemann.

From the British view, aside from damage to the German capital ships for the loss of one aircraft carrier and four destroyers, there was one thread of good luck. The Royal Navy never again ignored decrypts from Bletchley Park. In fact, in less than a year, during the hunt for BISMARCK, it was Bletchley Park that told the Royal Navy that the German battleship was heading for Brest. 

It is probably, after the battle of Kursk, the most celebrated tank battle, albeit on a MUCH smaller scale, of WW II. And it made of forceful argument that the German practice of quality over quantity was not necessarily the wrong one.

Bernard Law Montgomery had a bone stuck in his throat. And that bone was a city in Normandy, France called Caen. Caen, with its road net and high ground to its north, was a tactical and strategic key to any breakout on the eastern [British side] of the Normandy bridgehead. So important, in fact, that it had been the prime D-Day objective for the British on June 6th itself. Some nine miles or so from the beaches, it appeared easily attainable. And it might have been, but for the intervention of the 21st Panzer. As a result of that action, Caen remained in German hands - except in messages from 21st Army Group [Montgomery] to SHAEF [Eisenhower], where, mirabile dictu, SHAEF got the impression Caen was in British hands.

Efforts to remedy the situation first took an attempt at a double envelopment by 51st Highlander and other units. It failed. So did local probing attacks.

And then, to the British right front [west of Caen], the U.S 1st Infantry Division ["The Big Red One"], pushed the 352d German ID [who they had been fighting since OMAHA Beach] back and opened a corridor that offered Monty a chance to bypass Caen, and cut it off.

The operation was undertaken by the British 7th Armored Division, the famed "Desert Rats" of North Africa. And at first the offensive went extremely well. they took the Germans by surprise, in large part because they were moving along undiscovered by the Germans. When they reached Villers - Bocage, a village full of French civilians, they were welcomed warmly. Reconnaissance units were ordered ahead while elements of the armor and armored infantry halted and, in some cases, stopped for tea. No defensive screen was pushed out, despite the fact that fleeing Germans had been sighted, and the British had been sighted by the Germans. Enter Michael Wittmann.

Michael Wittmann was an SS Obersturmfuehrer [First Lieutenant], commanding 2d Company of the 1st SS Schwere [Heavy] Panzer Battalion, attached to 1st SS Panzer Corps. Wittmann, a veteran of the German Army, had jopined the Waffen SS before the war. He had commanded Sturmgeschutz IIIs in Poland and France, and a Panzer Mark III company in the early stages of BARBAROSSA. By 1942, he was attending the SS Junkerschule [SS Officer Candidate School] at Bad Tolz. By 1943, Wittmann was in command of his first TIGER I, and at Kursk, in 1943, Wittmann [with a gunner of superb ability named Balthazar 'Bobby" Wohl] made his bones big time, destroying  over 30 tanks, and numerous AT guns, trucks, etc.

But now, Wittmann was deployed just to the northwest of Villers - Bocage, with orders to observe the enemy, and hold his position. Realizing the size of the enemy column, and having only five or six TIGERS, Wittmann sent some of the platoon to alert Battalion of the enemy's presence, and to alert 1st Company to his rear. Wittmann then climbed into one of the TIGERS [222?], along with Wohl, and prepared to attack. Allegedly Wohl took in the scene in town and remarked that the British acted as if the war was already won. Supposedly Wittmann responded to the effect that they would show them they were mistaken .And the TIGER moved into the attack.

The TIGER I panzer was an approximately 60 ton behemoth, built around its 88 mm high velocity gun. It carried machine guns in its bow, and on its turret. While not sloped [it was designed in 1936], it carried some 4" of frontal and turret armor, and was fairly heavily armored everywhere but the rear. When first introduced in 1942, it was invulnerable to every tank on the battlefield, and all AT guns. By 1944, there were some solutions [the Joseph Stalin series, and the SHERMAN "Firefly" (an M4 SHERMAN modified by installing a British 17 pounder cannon)]. But aside from that there was NO tank, that could take on a TIGER and survive.

As Wittmann rolled into town, the first two British tanks he encountered were positioned in such a  way that they couldn't see Wittmann. The 88 roared, and both tanks went up in flames. They also blocked the road. Wittmann then rolled down the street, destroying to STUART light tanks, two headquarters tanks [one with a dummy gun, a couple of FIREFLIES, and numerous half tracks, and soft skinned vehicles [trucks, jeeps] with his machine guns. One SHERMAN that got behind him fired two rounds into the rear armor without effect. Wittmann traversed the turret to the rear, and took that Sherman out.

Somewhere in the village, near a store or apothecary, Wittmann was engaged by a 6 pound AT gun. Like Paris with Achilles, the gun struck the most vulnerable place on the TIGER, the track, disabling the German tank. Secure in the knowledge he'd be able to return for his track, Wittmann and the crew locked it up, but didn't destroy it, and returned to the German lines on foot. For Wittmann, Villers - Bocage was over. But not for the British.

Two more of the TIGERS from 2d Company now continued the attack, and were shortly joined by tanks [including MARK IVs - long barreled 75 mm gun]. The British were driven out of town, but held on a nearby ridge, driving back German attacks with heavy losses to the Germans. But, eventually, the British  withdrew from the ridge. Operation GOOD WOOD was over. Villers - Bocage was secured by the Germans. And Caen remained a bone in Monty's throat [his duplicity about his failure to capture Caen on D-Day marked the beginning of the estrangement and lack of trust between Montgomery and SHAEF, but especially between Montgomery and the Americans].

The Germans lost at least 6 TIGERS [most repaired, like Wittmann's] and suffered fairly heavy losses. Wittmann destroyed, by himself, a dozen tanks, and probably more than a dozen other vehicles - all in the space of about 15 minutes. It is considered by many to be the greatest single tank action of World War II. Because aside from the destruction Wittmann wrought, he singlehandedly stalled, and with help, stopped a British offensive.

Wittmann went on to be credited with approximately 142 destroyed enemy tanks, plus several hundred trucks, half tracks and cannons. After Villers-Bocage , he was promoted to SS Hauptsturmfuehrer [Captain]. He was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves for Villers-Bocage. Wittmann also held the Iron Cross, First and Second Degree, the tank combat badge and the Wounds Badge [the German equivalent to the Purple Heart. Michael Wittmann was killed in combat on August 8th, 1944, while engaging aqt least five or six enemy tanks. He destroyed three, but was in turn destroyed by a SHERMAN FIREFLY. Wittmann's body was not found until well after the war. He is buried in a German military cemetery in France.

What was it that the crews said ?
it took  5 shermans  to knock one tiger

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_Broadmead_Roope

By Spring of 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte, late Emperor of the French, escaped his exile on Elba, avoided British naval patrols, and landed on the southern coast of mainland France with the remnant of the imperial guard, some 600 men, he had taken to Elba, with him. He then struck out for Paris, the capitol, and seat of the restored Bourbon king, Louis XVIII. As he proceeded north, first towns, then cities opened their gates to him. First smaller, then larger military units defected to him. By the time he arrived at the Tulliers, and sent Louis packing, almost all of his old generals and Marshals were at his side. Having retaken his throne, Napoleon's problem was keeping it.

Peace feelers went nowhere. The Seventh Alliance, including Britain, Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden began organizing and moving their troops toward the French border. The Austrians and Russians were in Germany, and would take some time to reach France. Of more immediate concern, and much closer, were the armies of the Duke of Wellington, composed of British, Dutch and German troops, and the Prussian army of Marshal Blucher, both in Belgium, and close to the French border. Napoleon decided to strike there, hopefully destroy those armies and either force a peace, or fall on the Austrians and Russians thereafter.

Napoleon's Armee du Nord  had several advantages, but several problems as well. Most of his troops, and their commanders were veterans, but not all. The catastrophic losses in horses Napoleon suffered in Russia still haunted his artillery, and especially his cavalry. His cavalry was also hampered by Napoleon's refusal to accept the services of his brother-in-law, Marshal Murat, King of Naples, and the finest cavalry commander of the age; due to Murat's defection during the 1814 campaign.

Another of Napoleon's problems was utilizing the Marshals he had. Napoleon's erstwhile Chief of Staff, Marshal Berthier, had died under mysterious circumstances [either a suicide, or from being pushed off the roof of his residence]. Napoleon appointed Marshal Soult as his successor. Soult was one of Napoleon's finest fighting generals. But he had never held a staff position. Another of Napoleon's premiere combat commanders, if not his best, Marshal Davout, was left to man the Seine defenses. To command the two wings of his Army, he appointed Marshal Michel Ney, and his last appointed Marshal, Grouchy. Now Ney was a fighter par excellence, brave to the pint of foolhardiness. But he was no thinker. Grouchy had been the general commanding the Guard cavalry, but had never commanded mixed arms, nor a Corps, let alone an army wing. And both suffered from an inherent weakness in the Napoleonic command system. Napoleon preferred to personally direct his battles. While his Marshals were perfectly adapted to moving their Corps pursuant to the grand scheme, they were not normally put in the position to independently fight battles out of the Master's presence [Davout and Surrurier were exceptions as was Soult and Massena].

Napoleon opened his campaign with a masterstroke. Wellington had been faked into believing Napoleonj would move against his supply line at Ostend. Instead, having concentrated his troops in secret, he attacked the Prussians at Ligny, and routed them. He then sent Ney to attack the British at Quatre Bras. In one move he had split the two Allied armies. He then sent Grouchy after the Prussians with orders to follow them [and implicitly, keep them away from the battlefield], expecting the Prussian to fall back on their supply bases to the northwest. The Prussians, however, moved in an arc through Wavre, heading in a westerly direction, to join Wellington.

Wellington, having delayed Ney at Quatre Bras, then fell back to a position he had selected during a terrain inspection beforehand, Mont St. Jean - a ridgeline at the place we call Waterloo.

Napoleon, and the left [larger] wing of his army followed. But during the night the army,  line of march, as well as the battlefield were caught in a downpour. Among other things that meant that on June 18th, the French waited until late morning, or early afternoon to start the battle because until then, the ground wasn't firm enough for the French artillery, and Napoleon was using a Grand Batterie of massed cannon, a tactic he had developed to compensate for greener and greener infantry regiments that required attacking in battalion columns for control.

The two immediate objectives of the French were the farms at Hougemont and La Haye Saint. the French took the latter, after severe fighting, but never did take the former. And as the battle developed, it became obvious that the center of the line was the key. As was his wont, Wellington deployed his troops on the rear of the ridge in two lines. This allowed him to screen his troops from French eyes, negate the anticipated artillery bombardment, and hold a longer front with fewer troops. And the French infantry attacks were repulsed [As Wellington later said, "They came at us the same old way. And we beat them back the same old way"].

The battle in the center then evolved into a clash of British cavalry and French cavalry, with the French eventually coming out on top. But then Ney led a series of cavalry charges against the British infantry in squares. As a result, the French cavalry was rendered hors de combat, while the British held.

All this took place out of sight of Napoleon, who remained at his headquarters at the farm named La Belle Alliance [the French name for the battle of Waterloo]. Napoleon was ill that day. He may have been suffering from hemorrhoids, which prevented him from sitting a horse [although he was on one later in the day], or he may have been suffering from some sort of fainting spell. In any case, Ney was fighting WITHOUT his master's supervision. And yet, he was on the verge of success. Wellington's center was almost broken. But when Ney tried to send in reserves, Napoleon finally intervened and cancelled the attack. Although he didn't know it, Napoleon had effectively lost the battle of Waterloo. Because about five miles to the east [three hours marching time], the French and their Emperor sighted the first of streams of Prussians approaching the battlefield. Bonaparte then ordered troops on his right to turn, face and engage this new enemy.

As the mass of Prussians got larger and closer, and the pressure on his right increased, Napoleon began looking for Grouchy. But Grouchy was still doggedly following the rear of the Prussian forces [he would engage and defeat the Prussian rear guard at Wavre, all to no purpose]. When General La Salle, hearing the sounds of battle to the west begged Grouchy to head to the sound of the guns, Grouchy refused, citing his orders to follow the Prussians. Napoleon's refusal to train and encourage initiative in his Marshals was coming home to bite him in the buttocks.

With his right collapsing, and the Prussians joining with the British, Napoleon played his last card, and the battle reached its climax. He sent in the Imperial Guard to attack the British center. the Imperial Guard was the elite military formation in the French Army. They were the Waffen SS, USMC, and the 7th Cav., all rolled into one. They had never failed in battle. Until now. The Guard was driven back, and while tactically it was bad, from the point of view of French Army morale, it was catastrophic. With shouts of "Le Garde recule", the French infantry units began to lose cohesion, dissolve, and flee for their lives [Reserve units of the Guard covered the rout. When called on to surrender in the face of British cannon, one commander was supposed to have declaimed "The Guard knows how to die, but not surrender", or more prosaically, and probably more truthfully, "Merde"]. Prussian cavalry was only too happy to pursue and butcher the fleeing French.

Napoleon sheltered in a Guard square for awhile before fleeing the battlefield. His coach was found later that night. Although Davout urged him to hold out, Napoleon again abdicated. His plans to flee for America were scotched by the British naval blockade. He then petitioned the British crown to live in England. Instead he wound up on the windswept island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic where he died some six years later.

Marshal Ney was arrested in Paris by the returned Louis XVIII. Having not only failed to bring Napoleon to Louis in a cage, as he had promised during Bonaparte's march on Paris, but instead joining him, Ney was court-martialed, and sentenced to death by firing squad. Requests for mercy by Allied commanders and royalty were ignored. One Russian general who witnessed the execution was relieved of duty by the Czar.

With Waterloo, the Age of Napoleon, and the Napoleonic Wars were over. Except for the Crimean War, Europe would be at peace for 99 years.

In the early morning of June 20th, 1942, Erwin Rommel stood in his command vehicle to the southeast of the defensive perimeter of Tobruk, Libya. As he trained his field glasses on the fortifications [sadly degraded since the previous year by lack of repair], the STUKAS began to roar in for a series of sorties.

Tobruk had been a fixation for Rommel from almost the beginning of his first campaign in Libya the year before. Initially sent with a scratch force to bolster the Italian defenders of Mussolini's Empire in North Africa, Rommel had been cautioned not to undertake any major offensive actions, and was, indeed, barred from any minor offensive actions pending the arrival, in March, of the 15th Panzer Division. However, he quickly ascertained that the British had withdrawn large numbers of troops for redeployment to Greece. Scenting weakness, he moved his AFRIKA KORPS to El Agheila, and launched a probing attack. The British retreated, and Rommel launched a full offensive. He sent part of his force [and Italian units] up the coast road toward Benghazi, while he led [sometimes by airplane] another column across the desert. As a result, by the ned of April, the Axis stood on the Egyptian border, with Libya swept clean of British forces. Except at Tobruk.

Tobruk was a major supply port, on the eastern side of the Cyrenacian bulge. And supply largely dictated the desert war. Without Tobruk, Rommel was required to bring all his supplies from Tripoli, and to a lesser extent, Benghazi. that requirement stripped him of  trucks he could better use at the front, and ate up fuel he desperately needed at the front to transport the rest of his fuels and supplies to the army. Simply put, Rommel needed Tobruk to undertake any further operations.

His first attack was a 'rush job', with little or no reconnaissance. The result was heavy German losses. Further attacks were also beaten off, resulting in the Axis undertaking a rather ineffective siege, inasmuch as the Royal Navy controlled the seas, and could resupply and reinforce the garrison almost at will. Rommel was now fighting a war on two fronts: Tobruk and the border [also known as 'the wire'].

Rommel fared much better on the border. A British counteroffensive, "Operation BATTLEAXE", in early June was shot to pieces by 88s at Halfaya Pass and  an oasis further south, followed by a counterattack by 21st and 15th Panzer. But the 9th Australian Division, defending Tobruk was neither passive nor quiet. They engaged in active patrolling and raids. they also coordinated with the 8th Army's Operation "CRUSADER" in November, an operation remembered for heavy fighting at Sidi Rezegh airfield, Rommel's run to the wire, and the eventual retreat of the Axis forces in the faced of 8th Army's pressure, lack of supplies, and a breakout by 9th Australian that linked up with 8th Army.

By January, Rommel was back at El Agheila, licking his wounds, and receiving belated resupply. then he noticed the British rotating their veteran formations away from the front, and replacing them with 'green' units. And once again, the British withdrew veteran formations from the theater [some 30,000]and sent them to Singapore. Rommel did not need an invitation like thaqt twice. On January 23rd, he attacked again, and the second race for Egypt began.

This time, however, the British endeavored to stop Rommel west of Tobruk by creating a defensive line [the GAZALA line], built around a series of 'boxes', or self contained outposts, that ran down to Bir Hachim. And stopped. The British kept their armored units [brigade sized] behind the line in so-called 'penny packets', waiting for Panzerarmee AFRIKA. They didn't have to wait long.

It was probably Rommel's greatest battle. It showed all his trademark moves: aggressiveness, the ability to improvise and adjust on the fly, and the superlative use of combined arms.

Rommel swept around the south end of the Gazala line with his two panzer divisions, the 90th Light Infantry Division, and two armored and one mechanized Italian divisions. They ran over two British tank brigades in short order, but then got stalled. Rommel was in a bad situation, low on gas, and with Bir Hachim sitting on the flank of his supply line. He did two things. He ordered the capture of Bir Hachim, and personally went back and brought up a column of fuel trucks for his stranded panzers.

At the same time, the Italians on the west side of the Gazala line cleared a path through a British minefield which was not covered by British artillery, nor the adjacent boxes. Rommel then pulled his troops on the east side of the line, into a bridgehead btween the boxes and waited for the inevitable British attacks. Using 88s, minefields and a devastating panzer attack/ambush at Knightsbridge, Rommel decimated the British armored force [destroying some 800 tanks]. The British Army fell back on Egypt. the way to Tobruk was now open.

This time, the garrison was composed of second rate South African troops, not Australians. And the formidable defenses from a year before had been cannibalized, allowed to degrade and to fall into disrepair. It was a disaster waiting to happen.

And so, on June 20th Rommel watched the STUKAS, and then the panzers and grenadiers roll in. By 0930, they had broken into the inner defenses. By early afternoon, it was all over. Rommel captured some 33,000 prisoners[When Churchill, then in Washington, received the news, he said it was one of the worst moments of the war for him]. Of greater importance than the prisoners to Rommel were the mountains of supplies and fuel, and the number of vehicles he captured. With that haul, he was able to hurry after the British into Egypt. And plans for the invasion of Malta were forgotten. That night Erwin Rommel was notified that he had been promoted to the rank of GENERALFELDMARSCHALL, at that time the youngest Field Marshal in the German Army. He reportedly said he would have preferred another division.

Rommel went on to one more victory over the stampeding British before he ran into the hell and fire of El Alamein. He would then lead one of the longest and best executed retreats in modern military history, through Egypt, and Libya to Tunisia. There he would score his last major battlefield victory, over the Americans at Kasserine Pass.

Rommel was withdrawn from Africa, and would go on to command the defense of Normandy. He would die a forced suicide, for his involvement in the plot against Hitler. But the sun never shone brighter on Erwin Rommel than it did in June 20th, 1942.

It was an operation doomed to fail. It was built on competing views of its goals, and duplicity by its military planners. It came closer to success than it should have. And it spelled the end of both the Thousand Year Reich, and the ideology that drove that Reich to war in the East.

BARBAROSSA was the largest military operation, and invasion in world history. It involved some 3.5 million men attacking on an 800 mile front. The attackers were divided into three Army Groups: North, under Field Marshal Ritter von Lieb, comprising the 16th and 18th Armies, and the 4th Panzer Group [Hoeppner] (the smallest Army Group), which deployed in East Prussia, with an objective of Leningrad and environs; Center, under Field Marshal Fedor von Bock, with the 4th and 9th Armies and the 2d [Guderian] and 3d [Hoth] Panzer Groups the strongest Army Group], with an objective of Moscow; and Army Group South, , under Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt, with 6th, 11th and 17th German Armies, a Romanian Army and 1st Panzer Group [von Kleist], with the objective of the Ukraine, and Rostov and the Caucasus oilfields.

The disposition of resources for the campaign, upon examination is somewhat surprising. Adolf Hitler, driven by ideology, as well as pragmatism, viewed the long range objectives of the campaign as ECONOMIC. So his long range objectives were the industrial areas of the Leningrad area, and the Donbass; as well as the agricultural potential of Ukraine. For Hitler, Moscow was of secondary importance. And his constant back and forth with OBERKOMMANDO DES HEERES [the Army High Command and General Staff], made this perfectly clear. Where they wanted Moscow, he wanted Leningrad, the Baltics, and especially, Ukraine [since OKH was perfectly aware of the plan to strip so much of the food from the western USSR for Germany that 30 million Slavs were expected to die (Operation HUNGER
)], it was amazing they did what they did. But for Field Marshal von Brauschitsh [German Army Commanding General], and Col. Gen. Fritz Halder [Chief of the German General Staff], Moscow was the Holy Grail. So while paying lip service to Hitler's wishes in the campaign orders, they sent the weakest Army Groupto not only seize Leningrad but to occupy the Baltic States.

In a similar vein, Army Group South, faced with the occupation of at least half of the landmass being invaded, faced a split front, strong natural defensive positions [rivers running serially across the front], an unflankable left [the Pripyet Marsh - more on that below], an talented opponent [General Kirponis], the largest concentration of Soviet troops [they thought the main blow would be in Ukraine], and the largest number of both the new T-34 and KV 1 tanks; had only one Panzer Group.

But Army Group Center,directed against Minsk, Smolensk and what Hitler viewed as a secondary target, Moscow, contained almost half the German Armor on the Eastern Front, as well as two large armies.

The one thing Hitler and his senior generals agreed on was the necessity to destroy the Red Army as far west as possible. Large Soviet concentrations forward, plus alarming underestimates of Soviet troop strength, equipment strength, and reinforcement capability which would dog German operations in the Eastern War until its end seemed to make this possible.

But first there were major prblems to contemplate. ThePripyet Marsh, an exceptionally large swamp, divided Belorussia from Ukraine in the West. So the German offensive would not have a continuous front until after the Germans passed Minsk, and then only after AG Center and AG South made contact. And by that time, AG North would be on a divergent axis of advance from AG Center. Both of those scenarios required troops to hold the increasing gaps between the German AGs.

This led to another problem. The German advance would open the front from 800 to 1,200 miles fairly quickly. But German reserves, both at the Army, Army Group, and OKH reserve level were 'thin'. This could lead to gaps that could not be filled, and openings for Soviet troops to escape through.

Which was more than probable because the German Army was 90% horse drawn, an, in the case of the infantry, foot powered.And while it was true that the number of Panzer Divisions had been doubled since 1940, it was all sleigh if hand. They had cut the Panzer regiments in each division from two to one, and built a new division around each regiment. However, German industry couldn't fill the requirement for all the other vehicles a Panzer Division needed [trucks, cars, fuel trucks, half-tracks, etc.]. As a result, Panzer Group 3's vehicular [non-Panzer] establishment was some 60% French, but of differing manufacture, making the supply system chaos.

And that system was made MUCH worse by two facts. Soviet railroad gage was different than European standard gage. So the Germans had to relay every mile of track as they drove east. Andwhat appeared as 'roads' marked on maps turned out to be goat racks, and sandpits that turned into mud pits when it rained. Result, German supply convoys drank much of the fuel they carried to get the rest to the front, along with other supplies. The Panzers wound up short of fuel and were halted for same at inopportune times. And the German 'leg' infantry had to march some 40 miles a day, aidedby the amphetamines they received as standard issue.

The Soviets had ample warning Hitler was coming. Sorge told them. Churchill told them. German deserters on the night of 21-22 JUNE told them. The reports were duly passed up. And the reports were duly ignored by Stalin.

BARBAROSSA opened at 3:52 AM on June 22nd, with an intense artillery barrage that moved fromnorthto south, followed by Luftwaffe attacks on every Soviet Airbase they could reach. They switched to ground support later in the day. By the end of Day 1, the Germans had destroyed over 2,000 Soviet aircraft, most on the ground.

Within a week, the Germans had taken Minsk, and driven deep into the Baltic states. But Kirponis was giving Rundstedt all he could handle. Rundstedt advanced, but slowly. And at great cost. And by August there were problems. Of sufficient size to call Hitler in as referee. The Germans were now east of Smolensk, some 100 miles or less from Moscow. AG north was closing on Leningrad. But AG South had yet to either take Kiev, or force the Dnieper River. And the right wing of AG Center was'hanging in the air' to the tune of some 300 miles. The issue Hitler was called to referee was what to do next. Brauchitsch, Halder, Bock, Guderian and Hoth wanted to drive on Moscow. But Rundstedt, Kleist, and AG South wanted some of AG Center's armor to pivot to the South, come down behind the Soviets defending Kiev and the Dniper line, join up with Panzer Group 1, and encircle the Russians. Rundstedt was supported not only by his commanders, but by Bock's infantry army commanders, Kluge [4th], and Struss [9th].

Hitler finally was able to see the duplicity of his senior army commanders writ large. No artful communiques could cover what Halder and his staff had done. One of the first significant trust issues between Fuehrer and Field Marshals had occurred. Hitler sided with Rundstedt, and Guderian was ordered south. Result? 660,000+ Soviet prisoners, a continuous front running through Kursk and Kharkov, Kiev captured,and Rundstedt driving east toward Rostov.

By the beginning of October, Guderian had returned to AG Center, and Hitler let his generals of the leash to capture Moscow. It started brilliantly, with the twin encirclements at Vyazma and Bryansk. But then the weather changed, and the Germans drove on, but increasingly slowly. they not only lacked cold weather uniforms and boots, but cold weather lubricants, hydraulic fluids, and fuel. Tanks required fires under engines to turn over. Machine guns and cannons froze and became inoperable. The Soviets counterattacked on December 6th with fresh armies from Siberia and the reserves. the Germans broke and retreated. Only Hitler's order to stand and fight, no retreat, prevented a rout. A correct call in December, 1941, it became an increasingly incorrect one, and a cornerstone of German defensive strategy for the rest of the war.

Brauchitsch resigned under health grounds, to be replaced by Hitler. Bock, Lieb, Rundstedt, Guderian, and Hoeppner were relieved [Bock and Rundstedt were called back to duty in 1942. the war in the East would continue to 1945. the Germans would attack again in 1942 , and 1943 [CITADEL].  But BARBAROSSA was over, It died in the snows of Russia, in December, 1941.

So while paying lip service to Hitler's wishes in the campaign orders, they sent the weakest Army Groupto not only seize Leningrad but to occupy the Baltic States.

Is that why the siege of Leningrad was unsuccessful? Or that combined with the tenacity of the city's defenders (The 900 Days)?

The Soviets had ample warning Hitler was coming. Sorge told them. Churchill told them. German deserters on the night of 21-22 JUNE told them.

Sorge told the Soviets more than that. He also informed them the Japanese would NOT attack the Soviet Union from the south but instead would turn south and west toward India. Stalin was thus able to keep only a token force on the Soviet Union's border with China/Mongolia and mass all his available manpower in the West for face the Germans. Richard Sorge changed the course of history. A remarkable spy.

a continuous front running through Kursk and Kharkov, Kiev captured,and Rundstedt driving east toward Rostov.

When the German army entered Ukraine they were welcomed as liberators. The Ukranians well remembered the Holodomor. Later in the war, when it was much too late, Hitler even authorized an independent Ukranian unit to fight alongside the Germans.

they not only lacked cold weather uniforms and boots, but cold weather lubricants, hydraulic fluids, and fuel.

This, I once read, was the result of delaying Barbarossa for 6 weeks because, as PZLdr stated in another thread, "In April, 1941, Adolf Hitler was forced to invade Greece as a result of the maladroitness of his erstwhile ally, Benito Mussolini.
(Operation MERKUR [MERCURY]- 20 MAY 1941: The German Airborne Invasion of Crete). The delay meant the German troops were not properly equipped for the brutal Russian winter, and, well, the rest is history.

Hitler was more interested in the industrial zone to Leningrad's south and southeast than the city itself. But the weakness of AG North played a part. At one point they could most likely have sailed into Leningrad with little effort [September]. But then Hitler started pulling troops [the armor of 4th Panzergruppe] back and forth with armor from Panzer Group 3 while constantly shifting objectives from the northern front, asnd the northern part of the central front [the area of the Voldai Hills. And by then Hitler had decided to starve Leningrad to death without taking it. [the siege]. But of all the objectives of Barbarossa, with hindsight Leningrad was the most doable, if AG North had been properly staffed.

Sorge worked under a handicap common to both GRU [Sorge] and NKVD agents. Stalin refused to believe them. The LUCY ring in Switzerland, the ROTE KAPELL with tentacles into Goering's Air Ministry and the Ministry of Economics, not only confirmed Sorge's information, but were equally disbelieved. At one point [several years in fact], the Soviets broke contact with almost all their western agents. Max Hastings just wrote a superb book on intelligence in WW II. He has almost a whole chapter on Sorge.

Hitler was none too happy when he found out about the volunteer Galician division, and the various ethnic HIWIs serving with the Wehrmacht. Old prejudices never died with Hitler. Interstingly, aside from the German Army, the major push to incorporate the various ethnicities cam from the SS. the Cossack division was commanded by an SS general [Pannwitz(?)]. In addition to Ukraianians, the Germans formed units of Krim Tartars, Cossacks, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, and Russians.

The Balkans and Crete campaign had minimal effect on BARBAROSSA. The Soviet Union had a particularly wet Spring in 1941, and the Germans had to wait for the mud to dry before they could kick off the campaign. In reality they lost maybe two weeks. But the southern ventures did have two consequences: AG South, facing the most difficult front, went in with troops and equipment worn down by Yugoslavia and Greece. But the lack of proper winter equipment was due to two other problems, German hubris [they ALL thought BARBAROSSA would be a wrap in 8 weeks or less], and the chaotic supply system. By the time the Germans realized that it wasn't going to be 8 weeks, and tried to gather winter supplies, their supply system had no way of getting the gear to the front in anywhere near sufficient quantities.

thanks for the comments and the inquiries. hope you enjoyed the thread.

It was the single biggest single military disaster the German Army suffered in World War  II. By the time Soviet operations ended in August, 1944, Army Group Center had been virtually annihilated. Two German Armies, the 4th and the 9th, ceased to exist, as did 3rd Panzer Army. The Germans lost approximately 400,000 men, killed wounded or captured [most of them killed or captured]. Only 17 of Army Group Center's generals were not killed or captured. And by the time it was over, the Soviet Armies that had started just west of Smolensk, with an objective of Minsk, were across the Vistula River from Warsaw, in Poland, and had invaded East Prussia, threatening to cut off Army Group North from the rest of the German Army.

Planning had begun much earlier, and one of its key elements was deception. The Germans were inclined to believe that the Soviet offensive for the summer of 1944 would center on the north Ukraine. The terrain was more conducive to armor operations, and an advance southwest would threaten Romania, and Germany's principal oil supply. The Soviets gave the Germans all the indicia they needed that the assessment was correct. Much in the mode of Patton's pre- D-Day phantom First Army Group, the Soviets used dummy equipment, phony radio nets, and selected German air reconnaissance to reinforce the German belief that north Ukraine was the target. they were so successful that Hitler stripped AG Center of some 25% of its assault guns and tanks, and sent them to AG North Ukraine. the result was that AG Center faced the Soviets' 6,000 tanks with some 500+ of their own.

Compounding the incipient problem they faced was the Germans' own commander, Field Marshal Busch. Busch owed his position to neither strategic insight, nor tactical ability [although he did share his belief, just before the storm broke that AG Center was the next focus of Soviet intent], but rather to his slavish obedience to the Fuehrer's wishes. And Hitler had ordered that AG Center base its defensive strategy on the FESTUNG [fortress] doctrine, thereby effectively making AG Center [except its only armored formation, 20th Panzer Division], static.

Before the campaign opened, major partisan operations were undertaken throughout Belorussia. They were aimed specifically at the rail lines  and supply depots. Then the Soviets' first attack came in on the northern flank of AG Center, both to impede and separate AG North formations, and to draw mobile reserves to the center of AG Center's area of operations [Large formations of Soviet armored and mechanized forces faced AG North Ukraine waiting to break out when they moved]. Then Marshal Rokossovsky attacked from the south [the Pripyet Marsh], driving on Minsk. All Soviet attacks were preceded by what German survivors characterized as the heaviest artillery bombardment they had ever faced.

And as the Soviets broke through the static German positions, their deep penetration operations picked up pace, with the shoe on the other foot, as it were. The German Army was still 90% horse drawn. But the Soviets, after two years of Lend-Lease, were richly supplied with 2 1/2 ton trucks by the U.S. They were now capable of mobile operations the Germans could only dream about - even in their heyday. The result was encirclement and destruction for the Germans. Busch was relieved when he went to plead with Hitler to allow him, and his Army commanders more freedom of maneuver. He was replaced by the "Fuehrer's Fireman", Field Marshal Walter Model - to no avail.

The Soviets were taken by surprise by their own success. They ordered further attacks into Poland, toward the nexus of the Baltic States, and East Prussia, and in Ukraine. By August the Germans had been through past the 1939 border. And coupled with the Falaise Gap encirclement, it was a blow from which the Wehrmacht never recovered.

At one point 50,000 German prisoners, en masse, were paraded through Moscow. Some 160,000 Germans were taken prisoner. Many were murdered by the Red Army, or died in the Gulag. And the final debacle in Russia started, to the day, on the third anniversary of the commencement of Operation BARBAROSSA.

The Secret War: Spies, Ciphers, and Guerrillas, 1939-1945 by Max Hastings
https://www.amazon.com/Secret-War-Ciphers-Guerrillas-1939-1945/product-reviews/006225927X/ref=cm_cr_arp_d_hist_2?ie=UTF8&filterByStar=two_star&showViewpoints=0&pageNumber=1


Quite interesting given the legendary German reputation for efficiency.


Always do enjoy them. History fascinates me and I appreciate your posts. I hope you are not offended by my comments on your threads. Not trying to steal your thunder, but merely to illuminate your contributions from a different perspective.

Not offended at all. Your insights are spot on, and often add light to the subject.

As for the  German reputation for efficiency, it seems confined to operations, tactics and the operational level of strategy. The German Army gave almost no thought, it seems, to either intelligence, nor supply. When confronted by his quartermaster in Africa over re-supply for a battle, Rommel famously remarked "That's [logistics] your problem.

German doctrine developed in, and evolved to plan, short wars. The General Staff was always weak on Grand Strategy, and most times on strategy. In the German Staff system, the Operations Officer [1a], was the senior staff officer after the Chief of Staff, if there was one. Intelligence and Logistics were far down on the totem pole - at all levels- and it showed. After Poland, the Army was down to some 50% of its artillery reserve, and the Luftwaffe was low on bombs. And except for excellence in Signal intelligence, the German Army's intelligence officers were parvenus. Their absolutely abysmal performance in the Soviet Union is proof of that.

The lovefest that started between Napoleon Bonaparte, Emperor of the French, and Alexander, Czar of all the Russias at Tilsit in 1807, had soured irretrievably by 1812. From Napoleon's point of view, Alexander had failed to act like the junior partner he expected. Alexander not only refused to follow the French "Continental System", designed to bar the British from continental trade, he flouted it. Nor did he conform to the French Emperor's wishes in matters of foreign policy and diplomacy. For Alexander, Napoleon was overbearing, treated some his fellow monarchs [and Alexander's allies/friends], specifically the King of Prussia, with disdain, and most sinful of all, no longer looked like a winner.

The 'Spanish ulcer' was now superating in its fourth year, with the French unable to either put done the widespread guerilla insurgency in Spain proper, nor to defeat the Duke of Wellington, based in Portugal, on the battlefield.

And Napoleon, like Adolf Hitler over a century later, decided that the way to defeat England was to take Russia out of equation in Europe. Napoleon prepared for war.

The "Grande Armee" Napoleon fielded in 1812 was the largest he would ever command. 500,000 men were drawn from not only France, but Prussia, Austria, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Holland, and virtually every other country in the French sphere of influence. the plan was simple. Invade Russia, drive north toward the Czar's capital, St. Petersburg, pin the Russian Army, destroy it, and force an unfavorable peace on the Czar. But as Moltke the Elder once said, "No plan survives the battlefield".

The Russians did NOT fall back on St. Petersburg. Instead they moved the government to Moscow, and began trading space for time. Napoleon, whose whole plan was to bring the Russian Army to battle, was forced to follow. This presented somewhat of a problem, because the French supply system was somewhat, to put it charitably, rudimentary. And this was before the era of railroads. Still, the French over 20 years of war, had developed living off the other guy's land to an art form. So they dogged the Russians, looking for a decisive battle through Minsk and Byelorussia, past Smolensk to Borodino.

Napoleon won Borodino, but the victory was hollow. first, his tactics were fairly hamfisted, requiring the intervention of the Imperial Guard, and resulting in fairly heavy French losses. Worse, the Russians got away, undestroyed.

The Russians kept going east, even allowing the French to occupy Moscow, where Napoleon waited for the Czar to open peace negotiations. He waited until October. the only message the Czar sent was letting Moscow burn in a deliberate act of arson. With winter setting in [one of the worst of the century], Napoleon withdrew.

The plan was to head south, then west through the [until then] unplundered Ukraine. But blocking Napoleon's way was the Russian Army, ready for battle. Napoleon declined, and instead retreated out the way he had come in. With catastrophic results.

His supply system in shambles, the land picked clean on the way in, his men could find neither shelter, food, nor wood for fires. The were harried the entire retreat by Cossack light cavalry, and the Russian Army. And it just got colder.

Napoleon abandoned his Army to his Marshals at Smolensk, taking first a sled, and then a carriage in an  effort to beat the bad news to Paris, and assert his political control. The Prussian Corps attached to his army defected to the Russians [the Convention of Torgau], and within 6 months Prussia was fighting in the Allied coalition.

The retreat of the Grand Armee ended at the Berezina, with Marshal Ney the last man out. But the dimensions of the catastrophe were astounding. Of the Army that went into Russia, far less than 100,000 came out. the French lost some 600,000 horses. And that would play hob with both their artillery and cavalry in  the 1813 and 1814 campaigns.

Napoleon had invaded Russia to isolate England. Instead, he wound up, with few exceptions [the Saxons, the Poles], isolating France. By 1813, he had Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden [led by a former French Marshal, Bernadotte], and the Iberian Penisula arrayed against him.

He held them off, but lost Germany, in 1813. His own Marshals refused to continue the fighting [despite some of Napoleon's most inspired campaigning], in 1814, in France. Bonaparte was forced to abdicate, and become Emperor of Elba. then came the return, the 100 days, Waterloo, and final exile to St. Helena. But all that was far in the future when, on June 24th, 1812, the Grande Armee and their Emperor, splashed across the Nieman River.

It had been ruled by Japan since the early 20th century. And in the dynamics of the dying days of WW II, it was almost an afterthought.  But in the aftermath of the Japanese surrender, American and Soviet military officers faced each other in the Korean peninsula, trying to decide what to do. An impromptu agreement divided the country along the 38th parallel, with the Americans controlling the southern half, and the Soviets the northern portion of the peninsula.

The Soviets moved quickly to establish a puppet regime in the North, bringing back from Manchuria [where he'd been fighting alongside the Red Chinese], and from service in the Red Army, Kim Il Sung. Kim was popular in Korea because he had fought as a guerilla against the hated Japanese. His regime, however, relied in no small part, on repressive power, especially during the Stalin- like purges he instituted to wrest supreme power from his enemies within the Communist Party.

The South, on the other hand, found itself in a quasi-democracy under the rule of Syngman Rhee, who had returned from a life of exile in the U.S. Rhee had one thing in common with Kim. They both believed that Korea should be united as one country. they differed over who should rule it.

The U.S and Soviet troops withdrew by 1948 [the Russians left Kim bunches of military equipment], with only a U.S advisory team [KMAAG] remaining in the South. The Republic of [South] Korean Army [ROK] was composed of draftees, some professional officers, and some political soldiers. whatever their differences, they had one thing in common. They were woefully and deliberately underequipped. ROK had NO armor, NO AT guns, NO heavy artillery, and almost no Air Force. Why? Because the United States was convinced that given such equipment, Rhee would invade the North.

Whether he would have or not was problematic, and actually irrelevant. Because Kim was drumming up support for the Democratic Republic of [North] Korea to invade, overrun and unify the South with the North. He first got a tentative OK from Stalin, providing Mao Tze Dung signed off on the project. Mao did, having returned thousands of North Korean troops who had fought for Mao in the Chinese revolution.

Stalin now upped the game. The invasion was planned by Russian officers. Equipment rolled into North Korea by the trainload. the latest [prop driven] YAK fighters entered service with the North Korean Air Force. Critically, the Inmun Gun was furnished with a brigade of T-34/85 tanks. They would be the centerpiece of the plan. The final green light may well have been given by the U.S Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, who, in a speech said Korea was OUTSIDE the U.S Pacific Defense perimeter.

It started, in the Soviet style, with a massive artillery bombardment early in the morning of June 25th. Infantry attacks developed first on the far west and east of the peninsula, in part because the ROK troops in those areas were geographically isolated. The offensive then erupted in the central sector, with the NKPA 105th Tank brigade driving down the Uijonbu corridor. North Korean aircraft attacked Seoul and Kimpo airfield. The ROK were caught off guard. Some units fought bravely, many not so much. By Day 3, the NKPA was in Seoul, and preparing to cross the Taegu River. They were also murdering hundreds, if not thousands of ROK civilians and military [a habit that persisted on the drive south.

But now a Soviet diplomatic error came into play. The Soviets had been boycotting U.N Security Council meetings over the question of seating Red China in the U.N. Thus, they were unable to veto a motion by the U.S. to have the U.N respond, militarily to the North Korean invasion. And whether he had intended or not, Kim had now joined at the hip Syngman Rhee and the United States.

The first U.N ground contingent to arrive in South Korea was American [the bulk of U.N forces would be furnished by the U.S., with contingents from Great Britain, France, the Commonwealth, Greece, Turkey and others]. Task Force Dean moved up to Taejon, where they ran into the 105th Tank Brigade and other NKPA units. Equipped with the smaller version of the bazooka [NOT the 3.5" version] they were unable to stop the North Koreans.

But as the North Koreans continued their drive south, they did began to slow down. North Korea's Achilles Heel had always been a combination of distance, logistical support, and lack of sufficient air power. American sorties from aircraft carriers and Japan began to bite deep. What they didn't destroy, they caused to move at night, slowing reinforcement and resupply. At the same time, more and more U.S troops, under Walton Walker's 8th Army, began arriving in the port of Pusan, and began fanning out to fill defensive positions along the Naktong River. The race for Pusan became a close run thing, but the Americans won. And in a series of savage battles they held the increasingly diminished and despondent NKPA.

And then, for Kim, the roof caved in. Despite warnings from the Chinese to prepare defensives at Inchon, he didn't. And the Supreme U.N commander, Douglas MacArthur had amphibious Marines first take Womedo Island, which guarded the entrance to Inchon, then take Inchon, and then liberate Seoul.

The NKPA, most of which was far to the South experienced, at the same time, a full blown offensive by 8th Army, which drove them north as they disintegrated under the attack. By September, U.N and ROK troops were crossing into North Korea. Four more years of fightin and negotiation lay ahead. Seoul would change hands twice more. And the armistice that concluded combat operation is still in force today. But it all began on June 25th, 1950.

He was last in his class [1861] at West Point. He was one of the Army's first aviators [hot air balloon on the Peninsula]. He fought in almost every major battle fought by the Army of the Potomac. He was a hero at Gettysburg. He was the youngest Major General [brevet] in the U.S. Army at 24. His nicknames included "Autie", and "Iron Ass". His name was George Armstrong Custer. And as a Lieutenant Colonel of Cavalry, and field commander [he was the executive officer] of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, he died on a lonely hilltop, with over 200 of his men, on June 25th, 1876, the nation's Centennial Year.

With demobilization, Custer was demoted back to Captain. But when it was realized that the frontier would need to be secured, Congress formed ten infantry, and ten cavalry regiments to police it. Custer was offered the full colonelcy of the Ninth or Tenth cavalry, both Black regiments [with white officers]. Custer declined, refusing to serve with blacks. Instead he accepted the Lieutenancy of the  7th Cavalry. He, his wife Libby, his menagerie of dogs, pets and servants then decamped to Ft. Leavenworth, to fight the Commanche, Kiowa and Southern Cheyenne.

Custer's initial campaigns were a failure. The Indians didn't stand and fight, finding them was like finding a needle in the haystack. Discipline problems led to floggings, bucking, and when men deserted to look for gold, impromptu executions.. And then Custer deserted his command and rode in excess of 100 miles to be with his wife. The result was a court-martial, and a year's suspension without pay. For all extents and purposes Custer was finished. Except, he wasn't.

Custer received a telegram from Phil Sheridan recalling him to duty for a winter campaign. Custer was back by October. He trained his men hard, with an emphasis on marksmanship. He gathered the necessary clothing and other supplies, and struck out in a howling blizzard. Custer soon struck the trail of a war party, and followed it to the Wash*ta River. There he found the Cheyenne village of Black Kettle.  Black Kettle, a proponent of peace, had been the victim of the Chivington massacre in 1864. Although he wanted peace, his young men didn't. the 7th was to find mail, and other items taken on the Indian raids, in Black Kettle's village.

Custer deployed his men for an attack from three directions. As the Sun rose, he had the band signal the attack by playing "Garry Owen". The attack was devastating. Despite Custer's orders to spare all the women and children, some women, including Black Kettle's wife were killed. Most were captured.

As the battle wound down, Custer's XO, Major Joel Elliot, took a small group of men, and rode after some fleeing Indians, declaiming "For a brevet or a coffin". They were never seen again. As Custer consolidated his hold on the village, larger and larger groups of Indians began to approach from downstream, taking the cavalry under fire. With full daylight, Custer became aware that Black Kettle's was the first of some seven large villages on the Wash*ta. Unable to look for Elliot, Custer feinted toward the other villages, halting the Indians. He then slaughtered Black Kettle's pony herd [minus horses for the captives] burned down the village and its supplies [agasin minus what was needed for the captives], and withdrew.

The Battle of the Wash*ta drew rave reviews in the west, but some condemnation in the East. The Army Thought it was a job well done. Except for Captain Frederick Benteen. A friend of Elliot, and an exceptionally vindictive and small minded man, Benteen began an anonymous letter writing campaign faulting Custer for not looking for Elliot. The bad blood quickly split the regiment in to Custer admirers and an opposition group [the bodies of Elliot and his men were found when Custer and Sheridan returned to the battlefield some months later.

But Custer, reinvigorated, took to campaigning with zeal. The following Spring, he made peace with the Southern Cheyenne, and some of the Comanches. Custer was now regarded as one of the premiere Indian fighters in the west [along with George Crook and Ranald McKenzie]. He, and the 7th were then transferred to Ft. Abraham Lincoln. It would be Custer's last home.

On the Northern Plains, the principal enemies were the Lakota Sioux, comprised of bands called Ogalala, Hunkpapa, Sans Arcs, Two Kettles, Minneconjou, Brule and Blackfoot [not to be confused with the Blackfoot tribe in northern Montana and southern Canada]. The Lakota were an expanding military power on the Plains. Originally from Minnesota, they reached the Black Hills around 1775, drove the Kiowa out,  and spread west and south. They were in almost constant warfare with the Pawnee, the Shoshone, and the Crow. They allied with the Northern Cheyenne and the Arapahoe. In 1875, they finally drove the Crow off the Powder River  buffalo range. They were tough, ruthless, and saw no reason to accommodate the Whites.

Major problems arose from two sources.  The first was an exploratory mission into the Black hills [ceded to the Indians by Treaty]. Gold was found, and the rush was on. The Army tried to keep people out of the Hills, with limited success. The Sioux began killing the transgressors.

President Grant was in a bind. there was a recession on, and the gold would come in handy to stanch it. Plus he was under rising pressure for the West to abandon his "Peace Policy" for the Indians. He did, and in late 1875, riders were sent to the northern Plains tribes telling them any Indian not on a reservation by January, 1876 would be treated as hostile. Plans were made for a major campaign in the summer of 1876, consisting of three converging columns, commanded by Alfred Terry. John Gibbon would be there. So would George Crook. But not George Armstrong Custer.

Custer had been leaking information about corruption in the Indian agencies to select Democrat Congressmen and Senators. Called to testify, he implicated, indirectly, Grant's brother. Revenge was swift. Grant ordered Custer to stay in D.C. And he was there when the campaign started. After a cry de couer from Custer, Grant allowed him to return to the 7th.

Terry for one was pleased to see him. Major Marcus Reno, Custer's XO, had led the regiment in his absence, disobeyed orders on a scout, and had generally screwed things up. From Reno's point of view, it couldn't have been worse. The commanding general was angry. Reno's plan to supercede Custer as Filed CO of the 7th was up in flames, and worst of all, the man he tried to supplant was back.

Terry directed Custer t sweep to the south and use his own judgment if he struck a trail. Intelligence put the potential Indian strength at 800 men, women and children. The intelligence was dead wrong. The Indian agents had over reported the reservation Indians' numbers, leaving out those Indians who went out on the Plains every summer to hunt buffalo with their non-reservation cousins. So the actual Indian strength was in the thousands, with a minimum of 800, and as many as 2,000+ warriors. It was the greatest aggregation of Indians ever gathered on the northern Plains.

Custer's prime directive [to use a STAR TREK term] was not to let the Indians escape. It was bedrock doctrine in the U.S Army in the west that when a village was attacked the Indians would flee. Custer was not to allow that to happen. Terry further told Custer they believed the Indians were in the vicinity of the Big Horn River, and that Terry's column from the northeast, Gibbon's column from the northwest, and Crook's column from the  south would converge and meet Custer on June 26th.

Custer declined a battery of Gatling guns [a good call], and troops from the 2d Cavalry [a bad one], and headed south. What he was unaware of was that Terry's plan had started to unravel - in a big way.

George Crook was a great Indian fighter. He had fought Indians in the Pacific northwest, and pacified Arizona and New Mexico from the Apache. But at Rosebud Creek, he suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the Oglala war chief, Crazy Horse, and at least several hundred of his friends. Caught by surprise while eating, Crook's men were only saved by the heroic actions of his Shoshone and Crow scouts. Crazy Horse's attack, while not U.S Army in its discipline hewed much more to a recognizable military force than the popular conception of an Indian attack. Crazy Horse eventually withdrew, so Crook could claim victory for holding the battlefield. But he withdrew to his suplly base almost immediately. More importantly, he informed Terry neither of his encounter, nor his retreat.

John Gibbon, former commander of the Civil War's Iron Brigade, unlike either Crook or Custer was fully aware of the size of the Indian village. He had paralleled it at least  twice, from the other side of  a river. Strangely, he never sought to engage the hostiles, Nor did he notify Terry of their numbers or location. Terry himself moved southwest at a more leisurely pace than one would have expected of a combat commander. the result was Custer was out alone, with no idea of the numbers he faced or where they were located.

That changed on the morning of June 25th. Custer and the 7th reached a Crow Indian lookout called, appropriately 'the Crow's nest', some fifteen miles from the valley of the Little Big Horn. Lt. Varnum, Custer's Chief of Scouts, and his Crow scouts saw a huge pony herd [Custer couldn't see it] toward the west side of the valley. Accepting his scouts' claims, custer planned to rest his horses for the rest of the 25th, and attack early on the 26th, when, according to the plan, Terry and Gibbob would be in the vicinity, able to support him.

But then came bad news. Troopers covering the regiment's back trail, and searching for cases of rations that fell off a mule, found the rations - and a small number of Indians that found them at the same time. The Indians escaped [Unbeknownst to Custer they were returning to their reservation, and gave no warning to the hostiles].

Custer was now forced to change his plans. Aware that he may have been seen, knowing the general direction of the village, and ever mindful of not letting the Indians escape, he advanced the regiment to the north. Just short of a tributary of the Little Big Horn River, he divided the regiment into three battalions.

From Custer's location, there was a series of ridges off to the left, meadows and some woods to the front, and higher bluffs to the right. The river ran to his right front paralleling the bluffs. Using seniority, he gave Benteen several troops, and ordered him to scout the ridges to the left, and to prevent any Indians from escaping that way. He also sent the pack train with the reserve ammunition with Benteen [including his nephew, Boston Custer]. He gave several more troops to Major Reno, with orders to cross the river and charge the village. Custer himself took five troops, and went up the bluffs to the right, heading generally northward, with a promise to support Reno.

The Indians had almost no warning that an attack was underway. But when they were warned, they moved into action. Benteen was charging the lowest 'circle' of the village, the lodges of the Hunkpapa. While warriors grabbed weapons, and headed for the soldiers to theier south, Sitting Bull, paramount leader of the free Indians, and their spiritual leader, funneled more warriors into the attack, and sent the aged, the women and children toward the northern end of the village. Still, for a moment, it seemed Custer's plan was working.

But then, at least a quarter to half mile from the village, and before any serious opposition appeared, Reno halted his charge, ordered his men to dismount in the grass, and set up a skirmish line, with his left in the air. Since dismounted combat required one in five or four troopers to act as horse holders, Reno effectively lost 20-25% of his effective combat strength before engaging the Indians. It didn't take long for mounted, and warriors on foot to begin attacking, and working around Reno's left flank. Without issuing any orders, Reno pulled into a patch of woods with the river protecting his right. The troops under his command straggled in, but once there, it was a highly defensible position.

While Reno was falling back to the trees, it appears that Custer may have observed the action from the bluff at Medicine Lodge Coulee. It appears he sent a feint down the coulee toward the village with the intent of drawing off some of the Indians. It also appears he saw the refugees fleeing through the village toward its northern end. After some desultory with the Indians opposite [Northern Cheyenne], which resulted in the serious wounding [according to the Cheyenne] of an officer in buckskin, the feint withdrew up the coulee, covered by two or more volleys [heard by the other battalions]. Custer then proceeded toward the north end of the village, to cut off those fleeing. He also sent a message to Benteen "Big Village. Bring ammo packs. Come quick. Bring Packs". The message was delivered by trumpeter Giovanni Martini to Benteen, who claimed Martini's English was so poor, he was unable to better grasp the situation. In any case, Benteen began to return to the initial dispersion point, where he watered his horses and mules. He then began to move north, again at a somewhat leisurely pace [Boston Custer left the pack train when the message arrived, and died with his Uncles].

In the woods, Reno was standing next to the Arikira scout Bloody Knife. A Lakota or Cheyenne bullet blew his brains all over Reno. Yelling "charge" or some such, Reno jumped on a horse, and ran for the river. Most of the men who could or see him followed, in ones, twos and small groups. Many were killed in the river by the Indians. The rest, minus small groups that successfully hid in the woods until escaping that night, arrived atop what is now known as Reno Hill, and dug rudimentary defenses while under attack. There they remained until Benteen showed up. It appeared Reno may have been drunk. In any case, Benteen elected to combine his command with Reno's, took over actual direction of the defense, and improved the defenses somewhat. And then most of the Indians rode off - to the north.

Custer was under increasing pressure from the Indians in tactically unfavorable terrain. What appeared to be gently rolling hills were laced with coulees and smaller gullies, which allowed Indians not only cover, but the advantage of high arc bows and arrows. Gall, war chief of the Hunkpapa, ran of a sizable number of horses, from one of what became a number of blocking positions, while Custer continued to maneuver in a northerly direction. The blocking units began to be destroyed piecemeal, their survivors joining the survivors with Custer. Troopers began to try and flee; a number began to commit suicide.

Then as Custer and his men rode up the hill that bears his name, a large, mixed band of Indians appeared at the crest to Custer's left front. Custer, his family members, the HQ staff, and what remained of his battalion dismounted, and cut off, prepared for the end.

One of the Indians said later that "It took as long as a hungry man takes to eat his breakfast". Except for a desultory reconnaissance, against orders from Reno and Benteen, by Cpt. Weir [to the point that bears his name], no effort was made to aid Custer, not to find him, or find out what had happened to him.

That mystery was solved two days later, when Terry and his column, a day later than expected, found the remains of Custer's command on the high ground to the north of Reno and Benteen. The corpses had been robbed and mutilated, although Custer's showed only two bullet wounds, and some minor cuts. Custer's Last Stand was over.

My apologies. I spent over two hours composing this post, but was informed it was over the 2,000 word/digit limit when I tried to post it. So I tried to edit it down [hack it up was more likely] and re-post. It appears most of what I thought I had left has disappeared, making this post unintelligible. Again, my apologies.

Criteria:

Any General [can include a king or emperor who led his troops in the field] from any era of recorded history.

State your choice.

Defend your choice.

Gen George Patton.  Don't need to defend him.  His numbers speak for themselves.

Subodei Bahadur:

Uriankhi Tungus in service to the Mongol Quans. Participated in the invasion of Jin china. Chief of Staff to Chingghis Quan in the campaign that destroyed the Khwarism Empire. Led [with Jebe Noyon], the 'Great Raid', pursuing the Khwarism Shah to the Aral Sea, marching through the Caucasus, and destroying Georgia, raiding the Crimean Peninsula, destroying an 80,000 man Russian Army on the Khalka River and returning to Mongolia.

Subodei returned to Russia in 1237, after an approach march of 15 degrees in latitude. He destroyed the Volga Bulgars, shattered the Kipchak Turks, and became the ONLY general in history to conquer Russia. He sacked Kiev in 1240.

In 1241, he led the attack on Eastern Europe with a front that stretched from Transylvania to Poland. Sub commanders razed Crackow, destroyed the Balkans while he and Batu Quan crossed the Carpathians for the assault on the principal target, Hungary. By New Year's 1242, he had destroyed the Hungarian Army, sent the King of Hungary fleeing for his life. and taken both Buda and Pest. Spring 1242 found Mongol columns raiding Austria and Italy. Undefeated, the Mongols withdrew when they received news of the death of the supreme Quan, Uggedai, in Mongolia.

Subodei went on to campaign against the Sung Chinese before his retirement. He died in Mongolia.

Subodei won 65 battles, and lost one [during the Great Raid, against the same Volga Tartars he crushed 13 years later]. IMHO, no other general comes near him. He is history's greatest general.

He was last in his class [1861] at West Point. He was one of the Army's first aviators [hot air balloon on the Peninsula]. He fought in almost every major battle fought by the Army of the Potomac. He was a hero at Gettysburg. He was the youngest Major General [brevet] in the U.S. Army at 24. His nicknames included "Autie", and "Iron Ass". His name was George Armstrong Custer. And as a Lieutenant Colonel of Cavalry, and field commander [he was the executive officer] of the 7th Cavalry Regiment, he died on a lonely hilltop, with over 200 of his men, on June 25th, 1876, the nation's Centennial Year.

With demobilization, Custer was demoted back to Captain. But when it was realized that the frontier would need to be secured, Congress formed ten infantry, and ten cavalry regiments to police it. Custer was offered the full colonelcy of the Ninth or Tenth cavalry, both Black regiments [with white officers]. Custer declined, refusing to serve with blacks. Instead he accepted the Lieutenancy of the 7th Cavalry. He, his wife Libby, his menagerie of dogs, pets and servants then decamped to Ft. Leavenworth, to fight the Commanche, Kiowa and Southern Cheyenne.

Custer's initial campaigns were a failure. The Indians didn't stand and fight, finding them was like finding a needle in the haystack. Discipline problems led to floggings, bucking, and when men deserted to look for gold, impromptu executions.. And then Custer deserted his command and rode in excess of 100 miles to be with his wife. The result was a court-martial, and a year's suspension without pay. For all extents and purposes Custer was finished. Except, he wasn't.

Custer received a telegram from Phil Sheridan recalling him to duty for a winter campaign. Custer was back by October. He trained his men hard, with an emphasis on marksmanship. He gathered the necessary clothing and other supplies, and struck out in a howling blizzard. Custer soon struck the trail of a war party, and followed it to the Wash*ta River. There he found the Cheyenne village of Black Kettle.  Black Kettle, a proponent of peace, had been the victim of the Chivington massacre in 1864. Although he wanted peace, his young men didn't. the 7th was to find mail, and other items taken on the Indian raids, in Black Kettle's village.

Custer deployed his men for an attack from three directions. As the Sun rose, he had the band signal the attack by playing "Garry Owen". The attack was devastating. Despite Custer's orders to spare all the women and children, some women, including Black Kettle's wife were killed. Most were captured.

As the battle wound down, Custer's XO, Major Joel Elliot, took a small group of men, and rode after some fleeing Indians, declaiming "For a brevet or a coffin". They were never seen again. As Custer consolidated his hold on the village, larger and larger groups of Indians began to approach from downstream, taking the cavalry under fire. With full daylight, Custer became aware that Black Kettle's was the first of some seven large villages on the Wash*ta. Unable to look for Elliot, Custer feinted toward the other villages, halting the Indians. He then slaughtered Black Kettle's pony herd [minus horses for the captives] burned down the village and its supplies [agasin minus what was needed for the captives], and withdrew.

The Battle of the Wash*ta drew rave reviews in the west, but some condemnation in the East. The Army Thought it was a job well done. Except for Captain Frederick Benteen. A friend of Elliot, and an exceptionally vindictive and small minded man, Benteen began an anonymous letter writing campaign faulting Custer for not looking for Elliot. The bad blood quickly split the regiment in to Custer admirers and an opposition group [the bodies of Elliot and his men were found when Custer and Sheridan returned to the battlefield some months later.

But Custer, reinvigorated, took to campaigning with zeal. The following Spring, he made peace with the Southern Cheyenne, and some of the Comanches. Custer was now regarded as one of the premiere Indian fighters in the west [along with George Crook and Ranald McKenzie]. He, and the 7th were then transferred to Ft. Abraham Lincoln. It would be Custer's last home.

On the Northern Plains, the principal enemies were the Lakota Sioux, comprised of bands called Ogalala, Hunkpapa, Sans Arcs, Two Kettles, Minneconjou, Brule and Blackfoot [not to be confused with the Blackfoot tribe in northern Montana and southern Canada]. The Lakota were an expanding military power on the Plains. Originally from Minnesota, they reached the Black Hills around 1775, drove the Kiowa out,  and spread west and south. They were in almost constant warfare with the Pawnee, the Shoshone, and the Crow. They allied with the Northern Cheyenne and the Arapahoe. In 1875, they finally drove the Crow off the Powder River  buffalo range. They were tough, ruthless, and saw no reason to accommodate the Whites.

Major problems arose from two sources.  The first was an exploratory mission into the Black hills [ceded to the Indians by Treaty]. Gold was found, and the rush was on. The Army tried to keep people out of the Hills, with limited success. The Sioux began killing the transgressors.

President Grant was in a bind. there was a recession on, and the gold would come in handy to stanch it. Plus he was under rising pressure for the West to abandon his "Peace Policy" for the Indians. He did, and in late 1875, riders were sent to the northern Plains tribes telling them any Indian not on a reservation by January, 1876 would be treated as hostile. Plans were made for a major campaign in the summer of 1876, consisting of three converging columns, commanded by Alfred Terry. John Gibbon would be there. So would George Crook. But not George Armstrong Custer.

Custer had been leaking information about corruption in the Indian agencies to select Democrat Congressmen and Senators. Called to testify, he implicated, indirectly, Grant's brother. Revenge was swift. Grant ordered Custer to stay in D.C. And he was there when the campaign started. After a cry de couer from Custer, Grant allowed him to return to the 7th.

Terry for one was pleased to see him. Major Marcus Reno, Custer's XO, had led the regiment in his absence, disobeyed orders on a scout, and had generally screwed things up. From Reno's point of view, it couldn't have been worse. The commanding general was angry. Reno's plan to supercede Custer as Filed CO of the 7th was up in flames, and worst of all, the man he tried to supplant was back.
(continued next post)

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Terry directed Custer t sweep to the south and use his own judgment if he struck a trail. Intelligence put the potential Indian strength at 800 men, women and children. The intelligence was dead wrong. The Indian agents had over reported the reservation Indians' numbers, leaving out those Indians who went out on the Plains every summer to hunt buffalo with their non-reservation cousins. So the actual Indian strength was in the thousands, with a minimum of 800, and as many as 2,000+ warriors. It was the greatest aggregation of Indians ever gathered on the northern Plains.

Custer's prime directive [to use a STAR TREK term] was not to let the Indians escape. It was bedrock doctrine in the U.S Army in the west that when a village was attacked the Indians would flee. Custer was not to allow that to happen. Terry further told Custer they believed the Indians were in the vicinity of the Big Horn River, and that Terry's column from the northeast, Gibbon's column from the northwest, and Crook's column from the  south would converge and meet Custer on June 26th.

Custer declined a battery of Gatling guns [a good call], and troops from the 2d Cavalry [a bad one], and headed south. What he was unaware of was that Terry's plan had started to unravel - in a big way.

George Crook was a great Indian fighter. He had fought Indians in the Pacific northwest, and pacified Arizona and New Mexico from the Apache. But at Rosebud Creek, he suffered a serious defeat at the hands of the Oglala war chief, Crazy Horse, and at least several hundred of his friends. Caught by surprise while eating, Crook's men were only saved by the heroic actions of his Shoshone and Crow scouts. Crazy Horse's attack, while not U.S Army in its discipline hewed much more to a recognizable military force than the popular conception of an Indian attack. Crazy Horse eventually withdrew, so Crook could claim victory for holding the battlefield. But he withdrew to his suplly base almost immediately. More importantly, he informed Terry neither of his encounter, nor his retreat.

John Gibbon, former commander of the Civil War's Iron Brigade, unlike either Crook or Custer was fully aware of the size of the Indian village. He had paralleled it at least  twice, from the other side of  a river. Strangely, he never sought to engage the hostiles, Nor did he notify Terry of their numbers or location. Terry himself moved southwest at a more leisurely pace than one would have expected of a combat commander. the result was Custer was out alone, with no idea of the numbers he faced or where they were located.

That changed on the morning of June 25th. Custer and the 7th reached a Crow Indian lookout called, appropriately 'the Crow's nest', some fifteen miles from the valley of the Little Big Horn. Lt. Varnum, Custer's Chief of Scouts, and his Crow scouts saw a huge pony herd [Custer couldn't see it] toward the west side of the valley. Accepting his scouts' claims, custer planned to rest his horses for the rest of the 25th, and attack early on the 26th, when, according to the plan, Terry and Gibbob would be in the vicinity, able to support him.

But then came bad news. Troopers covering the regiment's back trail, and searching for cases of rations that fell off a mule, found the rations - and a small number of Indians that found them at the same time. The Indians escaped [Unbeknownst to Custer they were returning to their reservation, and gave no warning to the hostiles].

Custer was now forced to change his plans. Aware that he may have been seen, knowing the general direction of the village, and ever mindful of not letting the Indians escape, he advanced the regiment to the north. Just short of a tributary of the Little Big Horn River, he divided the regiment into three battalions.

From Custer's location, there was a series of ridges off to the left, meadows and some woods to the front, and higher bluffs to the right. The river ran to his right front paralleling the bluffs. Using seniority, he gave Benteen several troops, and ordered him to scout the ridges to the left, and to prevent any Indians from escaping that way. He also sent the pack train with the reserve ammunition with Benteen [including his nephew, Boston Custer]. He gave several more troops to Major Reno, with orders to cross the river and charge the village. Custer himself took five troops, and went up the bluffs to the right, heading generally northward, with a promise to support Reno.

The Indians had almost no warning that an attack was underway. But when they were warned, they moved into action. Benteen was charging the lowest 'circle' of the village, the lodges of the Hunkpapa. While warriors grabbed weapons, and headed for the soldiers to theier south, Sitting Bull, paramount leader of the free Indians, and their spiritual leader, funneled more warriors into the attack, and sent the aged, the women and children toward the northern end of the village. Still, for a moment, it seemed Custer's plan was working.

But then, at least a quarter to half mile from the village, and before any serious opposition appeared, Reno halted his charge, ordered his men to dismount in the grass, and set up a skirmish line, with his left in the air. Since dismounted combat required one in five or four troopers to act as horse holders, Reno effectively lost 20-25% of his effective combat strength before engaging the Indians. It didn't take long for mounted, and warriors on foot to begin attacking, and working around Reno's left flank. Without issuing any orders, Reno pulled into a patch of woods with the river protecting his right. The troops under his command straggled in, but once there, it was a highly defensible position.

While Reno was falling back to the trees, it appears that Custer may have observed the action from the bluff at Medicine Lodge Coulee. It appears he sent a feint down the coulee toward the village with the intent of drawing off some of the Indians. It also appears he saw the refugees fleeing through the village toward its northern end. After some desultory with the Indians opposite [Northern Cheyenne], which resulted in the serious wounding [according to the Cheyenne] of an officer in buckskin, the feint withdrew up the coulee, covered by two or more volleys [heard by the other battalions]. Custer then proceeded toward the north end of the village, to cut off those fleeing. He also sent a message to Benteen "Big Village. Bring ammo packs. Come quick. Bring Packs". The message was delivered by trumpeter Giovanni Martini to Benteen, who claimed Martini's English was so poor, he was unable to better grasp the situation. In any case, Benteen began to return to the initial dispersion point, where he watered his horses and mules. He then began to move north, again at a somewhat leisurely pace [Boston Custer left the pack train when the message arrived, and died with his Uncles].

In the woods, Reno was standing next to the Arikira scout Bloody Knife. A Lakota or Cheyenne bullet blew his brains all over Reno. Yelling "charge" or some such, Reno jumped on a horse, and ran for the river. Most of the men who could or see him followed, in ones, twos and small groups. Many were killed in the river by the Indians. The rest, minus small groups that successfully hid in the woods until escaping that night, arrived atop what is now known as Reno Hill, and dug rudimentary defenses while under attack. There they remained until Benteen showed up. It appeared Reno may have been drunk. In any case, Benteen elected to combine his command with Reno's, took over actual direction of the defense, and improved the defenses somewhat. And then most of the Indians rode off - to the north.

Custer was under increasing pressure from the Indians in tactically unfavorable terrain. What appeared to be gently rolling hills were laced with coulees and smaller gullies, which allowed Indians not only cover, but the advantage of high arc bows and arrows. Gall, war chief of the Hunkpapa, ran of a sizable number of horses, from one of what became a number of blocking positions, while Custer continued to maneuver in a northerly direction. The blocking units began to be destroyed piecemeal, their survivors joining the survivors with Custer. Troopers began to try and flee; a number began to commit suicide.

Then as Custer and his men rode up the hill that bears his name, a large, mixed band of Indians appeared at the crest to Custer's left front. Custer, his family members, the HQ staff, and what remained of his battalion dismounted, and cut off, prepared for the end.

One of the Indians said later that "It took as long as a hungry man takes to eat his breakfast". Except for a desultory reconnaissance, against orders from Reno and Benteen, by Cpt. Weir [to the point that bears his name], no effort was made to aid Custer, not to find him, or find out what had happened to him.

That mystery was solved two days later, when Terry and his column, a day later than expected, found the remains of Custer's command on the high ground to the north of Reno and Benteen. The corpses had been robbed and mutilated, although Custer's showed only two bullet wounds, and some minor cuts. Custer's Last Stand was over.

don't appolozige..I am sorry it took me this long to see this. I have had my mind elsewhere since the 23rd. My dog got attacked, mauled by 6 pig hunting dogs. He is on the mend.

Sorry to hear about your dog, Apples, but happy to see you rode to PzLdr's rescue. Too bad someone didn't do the same for Custer.

And thank God for that.

You make a good case for him, PzLdr, though my first thought was Cyrus the Great, not only for his conquests and the extensive empire he created, but also for the relatively humane policies he followed after conquest. My second choice might be Alexander the Great who was no slouch when it came to military conquests of his own, but died too young to see what kind of ruler he might have been.

I'm also very sorry about your dogs. I hunt wild boar [never with a dog], and I've seen every kind of there is used on pig hunts: Plott Hounds, pit bulls, Catahoulas. Glad he's on the mend. hope he's going to be OK.

Two of the things that gets lost in the story of the Big Horn are that Custer intended, until the Indians were found on his back trail, to rest up the whole of the 25th, and attack on the 26th, as originally planned; and that none of the other troops, who were to be in Custer's vicinity on the 26th, arrived until the 27th - a day later than planned.

I don't know much about generals in history...yet will read here.

The Spring of 1863 was a mixed blessing for Robert E. Lee. He had just come off two major victories over the Army of the Potomac, Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. But they had come at a price and a cost. Stonewall Jackson was dead. And rather than choose one replacement for him, Lee had opted to break up the current structure of the two infantry corps and one cavalry corps that comprised his army, and replace it with three infantry corps, giving Jackson's old corps to LTG Richard Ewell, and the newly created IIId  Corps to LTG Ambrose Powell Hill. This did not sit well with MG JEB Stuart, commander of Lee's cavalry. Stuart had taken command of Jackson's Corps after he had fallen at Chancellorsville, and done an excellent job. HE had hoped to succeed Jackson, although what he really wanted was promotion to LTG, which he thought as a corps commander himself, he deserved.

Additionally, Lee faced another problem, caused by his success. Jefferson Davis and his advisors were considering a plan to send Lee, and two-thirds of his army to the west, assuming that the beaten Army of the Potomac was weakened enough to remain quiescent for the coming months. Lee was opposed to leaving Virginia, and counter-proposed 'invading' the North for a second time, this time going into Pennsylvania. The ostensible objective was to live off the North's agriculture, give Virginia farmers relief, perhaps threaten some major Union cities, and possibly bring the Union Army to battle again. Lee carried the day, and by early June, his army was concentrated near the western Maryland border prepared to go north.

Then, "for want of a nail...". On June 9th, the Union cavalry attacked, in force, Stuart's corps at Fleetwood Hill [Brandy Station]. In a battle that lasted all day, Stuart, with infantry support, held the hill., with the bluejackets retreating in good order. But Stuart was savaged in the Southern press, which meant he was liable to try something spectacular to regain his image. And Lee's orders to him  [referred to by other Southern officers as 'suggestions'] gave him the opportunity to do just that.

Stuart's mission was to cover Lee's right, keep an eye on the Union army, and prevent Union cavalry from observing Lee's movement up the other side of the Blue Ridge Mountains. But he also allowed Stuart latitude in how he did this. Result? Stuart left two brigades of cavalry with Lee, and attempted another 'ride around the Union Army'. It failed. Stuart went too far east, got entangled in running fights with Union cavalry, and got slowed down by a captured wagon train. He basically rode himself out of the campaign until the afternoon of July 2d, the second day of battle.

On the other side of the mountains, things went well. Ewell took Harper's Ferry, swept up the valley, and debauched into Pennsylvania. He proceeded northeast to Chambersburg, stopping, along the way, to pick clean Gettysburg. Next up the Valley was A.P. Hill, who stopped at Taneytown. Still moving up through Maryland was LTG James Longstreet, and the First Corps. Things seemed well in hand until Henry Heth's men went looking for shoes. What they found was John Buford's cavalry, and shortly, the Army of the Potomac.

Lee, Hill and Heth first thought the troops they faced were state guards. After all, they had no intelligence that the Army of the Potomac was on the move. But it was. And the arrival of the Iron Brigade proved it. With troops spread in an arc from Chambersburg to Maryland, Lee should have re-grouped. But "his blood was up", and what started as a meeting engagement turned into a full scale battle, with Ewell, hearing the guns, moving to Gettysburg from the northeast, while hill's troops attacked from the west. Between them, they drove the Federals out of Gettysburg onto Culp's Hill, with Union reinforcements occupying Cemetery Ridge.

It was then that Lee's orders as suggestions bit him again. He ordered Ewell to take Culp's Hill, "if practicable". Jackson would have. Ewell decided it wasn't, and didn't. So at the end of July 1st, The Union held a five mile line shaped like an elongated paper clip facing the Rebel positions on Seminary Ridge and Gettysburg. Lee's line looked like a fishhook, with the barb at Culp's Hill. His line was nine miles long. Lee was holding a line almost twice as long as Meade's [the new Union commander] with, eventually, about 75,000 men. Meade was defending, on interior lines, half as long, with, eventually, 90,000 men.

Lee's problems were formidable. Coordinating anything near simultaneous, or supporting attacks at either end of his line proved nearly impossible [Day Two]. Some of his commanders [particularly Longstreet] urged withdrawal to a favorable defensive position between Meade and Washington, forcing the Union Army to attack him. Lee refused. Instead he directed Longstreet to attack the middle of the Union line with Pickett's division [arrived on the night of July 2d], Pettigrew's division, and other troops from Hill's Corps. Longstreet argued against it, noting the terrain was like Fredericksburg, but this time it was the Union troops dug in at the top of a hill, behind over a 1/2 mile of open ground. Lee refused. And so on the afternoon of July 3, 1863, the Army of Northern Virginia sent over 12,000 men into the teeth of a barrage of almost all the Army of the Potomac's artillery, joined, when they got within range with the massed musket and rifle fire of the Union Infantry. One small breakthrough was contained, then driven back. To catcalls from the Federals of "Fredericksburg, Fredericksburg", the rebels cracked, then broke, fleeing the field. they left over half the attacking force behind, dead or captured. As Pickett succinctly put it after the war, "That old man [Lee] killed my division". The question is 'why'?

I suggest the answer is hubris. Lee believed his men could do anything if they willed it. He was very wrong. Against the advice of proven combat leaders he chose to fight an enemy of unknown origin when he could have held back. He refused to either discontinue combat, or regroup when he became aware of whom he was fighting. He again ignored the advice of his senior commander when he directed an attack over open ground, broken by fence lines, uphill against a dug in, numerically superior enemy.

Lee withdrew the next day, July 4th. Coupled with the surrender that day of Vicksburg, the South's back was broken. The war would continue for two more years. Butr Robert E. Lee would never take the strategic offensive again. From Gettysburg on, he danced to the Union's Army tune.

Sadly.

Another good piece, PzLdr. Thanks.

Ever consider how history might have turned out differently 'if only'? Five quick examples:

[1] What if Alexander had made peace with Darius, married his daughter, taken half his Empire AND TURNED WEST? He had already proclaimed Carthage an enemy. So what happens if Rome never rises?

[2] What if Publius Quintillius Varus had listened to Segestes, and not blundered into the annihilation of three legions [XVII, XVIII, and XIX] in the Teutoberg Forest. Would Rome have successfully colonized Germany? And what then?


[3] What if Uggedai Qa Quan DIDN'T die in 1241. Would Subodei have conquered the rest of Europe?

[4] What if Mongke Qa Quan didn't die on campaign in China. Would his brother Hulegu, with his whole Army, have destroyed Muslim power in the Middle East?

[5] What if British officer [and sharpshooter] Patrick Ferguson didn't do the gentlemanly thing early in the Revolution [refuse to shoot an enemy officer in the back] and instead killed that officer - George Washington.

Any comments and additions to the list are more than welcome!

Yes another good piece.

The Plan was named for a snake. A very large, albeit non-poisonous snake. Created by the first U.S. General-in-Chief of the Union Army, Winfield Scott, the Anaconda Plan contemplated squeezing the South to death by blockading its Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico ports, and by isolating the three western Confederate states, Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the rest of the Confederacy by seizing control of the Mississippi river. And by Spring, 1863, even though Scott was long gone, the plan was well underway.

The naval blockade, while still spotty [it would never be totally effective], succeeded in cutting off much needed trade and supplies to the Confederacy. Since the practice was recognized by international law, neither Britain, nor France declared war over it. And since the great majority of the U.S. Navy remained  [a] loyal, and in Union hands, the blockade was not that hard to put into effect.

The "Father of Waters", however, was another proposition all together. Initial operations at both ends [Island #10, New Orleans] were successful. But the stretch of the river between Port Royal and Vicksburg remained in Rebel hands. And Vicksburg was the key.

Perched on a bluff on the eastern side of the Mississippi, Vicksburg dominated the river. To add to its strategic position, and its fortifications, the west bank, and area to the south was largely swamp, making passage for union troops overland difficult, if not nearly impossible. And as long as Vicksburg flew the Stars and Bars, it meant the South had access to reinforcements and foodstuffs from the western confederate states, particularly Texas. And that brought U.S Grant, William T. Sherman and company to Vicksburg, to face a Confederate general from Pennsylvania named John C. Pemberton, and his Army of Mississippi.

The opening moves did not go well for Grant. Attempts to move troops through the swamps were met with failure. So were more northerly efforts. Finally, using the U.S Navy's river squadron [America's first real effort in 'riverine' warfare], Grant 'ran' the Mississippi under Vicksburg's guns, and finally crossed the river south of the city. He now had a supply line that ran down the west bank, and crossed to the east bank. but he had a supply line. And then he got down to business,

Grant was faced with two potential military forces. there was Pemberton to his front. But there was also Gen. Joseph E. Johnston off to the south east and east raising another Confederate Army. Grant tackled his immediate problem first. At the battle of Champion Hill, he engaged, and defeated Pemberton. Pemberton then withdrew to Vicksburg, apparently expecting Johnston to come to his aid. the aid was not forthcoming. And by retreating to the city, Pemberton cut himself, his 30,000 man Army and the citizens off from any help. the Union navy controlled the river. And Grant was coming from the southeast.

Hoping to end things quickly, and before Pemberton settled into the defenses, Grant launched two assaults, on May 19th and May 22d. Both failed. It was at that point that Grant opted for a siege. He had two problems facing him. First he lacked sufficient troops for a 'tight' siege. Second, Johnston was showing signs of life. Request  to MG Henry Halleck for reinforcements were answered with enough troops to allow Grant to not only set up effective siege lines, but to create a special detachment under Sherman to shield the Army's rear from Johnston. And then, while Grant conducted the siege, Sherman met, and defeated Johnston, driving any hope of Vicksburg's relief away. Johnston, who apparently failed to see the strategic value of Vicksburg had expected Pemberton to abandon the city. Now it was too late.

Vicksburg suffered shelling from both the land and river. People wound up living in dugouts in the bluffs called 'hidies'. Dog, cats and rats disappeared from the town as other food ran out. By July, they were starving.

Pemberton and his generals thought surrendering on Independence Day might incline Grant to be merciful. They were right, but for the wrong reason. Grant could not afford, in any sense to guard and feed 30,000 prisoners, as well as care for the population of Vicksburg. So he paroled Pemberton's Army. And the surrender took place on July 4th, 1863.

Vicksburg is the forgotten, but far more important twin of Gettysburg. In the latter, Lee's army was defeated, but retreated, more or less intact, to fight another day over the same old ground it had been fighting over for two years.  With Vicksburg, the South lost, and the Union gained an inestimable strategic asset - the Mississippi River [Port Royal finally fell to Union troops on July 9th]. Approximately 1/3 of the Confederate states were sundered from their government, becoming 'the Empire of Kirby Smith', the general commanding the Trans-Mississippi. Access to beef, horses and other supply was largely cut off. Union troops could now move rapidly north and south on the bulk of the Confederacy's left flank.

The Vicksburg campaign was probably, IMHO, the greatest strategic operation ever undertaken in North America. It was planned and carried out by the command team that would bring the South to its' knees, U.S. Grant, and William T. Sherman. It was a fitting celebration of the nation's birthday.

By 1943, Germany's declining ability to wage war in the Soviet Union was starkly reflected in the size of offensives it was capable of launching. In 1941, the Germans had attacked on an 800 mile front that later expanded to over a 1,000 miles. In 1942, even with stripping other fronts and countries for troops, the summer offensive that culminated in the debacle of Stalingrad had opened on a front that ran from Kharkov and Voronezh down to Rostov, before [theoretically] funneling down into the Caucasus to the oilfields of Maikop, and Grozny.

And in 1943, the area of operations was smaller still. Germany had been reduced to planning a pincer movement against a bulge protruding west from Kursk. The plan was to pinch off the bulge, destroy the Soviet troop concentrations within, and both straighten and shorten the German lines by some 300 miles. And even an operation that small presented problems. First, the bulge ran through the boundaries of Army Group Center and Army Group South. So the attacking forces would be from forces under two different commands. Second, by 1943, the Germans had lost almost a half million infantrymen on the Eastern Front. In addition to being able to conscript and train replacements [which would be too late for the operation, ZITADELLE [CITADEL], Hitler's penchant for creating new units, instead of re-constituting old ones, severely limited the ability of the German infantry to giving meaningful support for the attack.

That meant the bulk of the offensive had to be carried by Panzer and Panzer Grenadier Divisions. And that meant the Germans needed tanks. Lots of tanks.

As the war in the East had progressed, two factors entered German thinking about armor. First, their initial conception of using tanks against infantry, and anti-tank guns against tanks had changed. On the Eastern Front, tank against tank battles became more common, and even the Sturmgeschutz assault guns began to be modified into tank destroyers. Second, the Germans began to realize that they could neither keep up with Soviet tank production, nor replicate the lethal T-34 themselves [the aluminum alloy in the engines]. So Hitler began thinking quality over quantity, and bigger is better. The first result, debuting on the Northern front in Russia in the fall of 1942, was the Mark VI TIGER tank. Based on a 1936 design, it lacked sloped armor. But it carried 4" of frontal armor, and an 88 mm. long barreled gun. In fact the tank was built around the gun. And the TIGER was invulnerable to anything on the battlefield. Next up was the Mark V PANTHER, which was heavily influenced by the T-34. the PANTHER DID have sloped armor. And a long barreled high velocity 75mm gun. Additionally, the Germans upgunned their warhorse, the Mark IV Panzer with a long barreled 75 mm gun of its own.

But by Spring, 1943, when CITADEL was envisaged to jump off, the Germans lacked enough tanks to complete the mission. Additionally, the PANTHERS, rushed into production, were having teething problems, being, since they were German, over-engineered. And so the date for CITADEL kept getting pushed back, and the Russians kept getting more time to improve their already formidable defenses.

The Russians knew fell well what the German plans for the summer of 1943 were. Their spies had told them almost all of it, except when, and that fact would be forthcoming before the battle started. Within the bulge, the Soviets built three separate defense lines, each with their own trenches, buried tanks [turrets only above ground], infantry units, anti-tank guns, artillery and air support. the Soviets were organized in three distinct fronts: the Western Front [at the tip of the bulge, the Central Front [Rokossovsky] facing north [and Model's 9th Army], and the Voronezh Front [Vatutin] , facing south[and Army Group South (von Manstein), Army Detachment Kempf, and its spearhead, 4th Panzer Army (Hoth).

By the time the Germans had brought what they though were sufficient armored formations to the front, it was July, and Hitler was increasingly worried about the operation. But it went forward.

Although Operation CITADEL is usually described as starting on 5 JULY, it actually began on the evening of the 4th, when the Germans undertook a preliminary operation to seize some high ground. If they thought their success was a good omen, they were quickly disabused. Zhukov, the overall Soviet commander, now with the German start times and objectives in hand, opened the dance with a preemptive artillery barrage that caught the Germans assembling for the attack. The disruption was significant. A surprise Russian air attack on the Luftwaffe was not only less successful, it cost the Soviets an large number of planes, giving the Germans air superiority in the south, and parity better in the north.

The main attacks went in on the 5th. In the north, Model led with his infantry, intending to send in his armor when the infantry punched through the Soviet lines. Progress was slow, and slowing. to compound his problems, Model was equipped with the monstrosity  known as the TIGER FERDINAND. Designed by Dr. Ferdinand Porsche, the inventor of the Volkswagen, the FERDINAND was his attempt to recoup his loss to Henschel in winning the contract for the TIGER I. He failed. While the FERDINAND would go on to great success in the defensive role in Italy as a tank destroyer, at Kursk, it was useless. It was armed with an 88 m gun. But it had no ball mounted hull machine gun. It had no turret mounted machine gun. In fact, it had no turret. the main gun was fixed in the hull. The entire track had to turn to shoot. and without machine guns, it couldn't defend itself. Soviet infantry ate them for breakfast.

As Model's offensive slowed, a Russian offensive erupted against Army Group center near Orel. Model lost his reserves, and then his attack was suspended. CITADEL was now reduced to a one armed pincer from the South.

The attack in the south went well, initially. Hoth had a formidable punch in XLVIII the Panzer Corps [220 PANTHERS], and the 2d SS Panzer Corps [comprised of the 1stt SS Pz. Gren. Division "LEIBSTANDARTE ADOLF HITLER", 2d SS P.z Gren. Division "DAS REICH", and 3d SS Pz. Gren. Division [and the strongest of the three] "TOTENKOPF". He also had dedicated ground support aircraft at his disposal, STUKAS with undermounted 37 mm cannons, Henschel ground attack aircraft, and Focke Wulf fighter bombers.

The result was the Germans in the south broke through the first Soviet defense zone the first day. That pace slowed on the western side of the sector, but the SS continued to make significant progress. Then, on July 12th, after a change of Schwerpunckt that sent the SS to the northeast, the final showdown occurred, in what most historians  concur is the largest tank battle in history, the battle of Prokhorova.

The SS was in the process of breaking into the open ground behind the last Soviet defense belt, but Hermann Hoth, one of Germany's greatest, if unsung tank commanders, smelled armor, Soviet Armor, so he sent the SS to meet it. The armor he smelled was Rostimov's 5th Guards tank army. And as the reserve, it was sent to counter-attack the Germans and plug the hole. they did thwe former, but not the latter. T-34s tried to close the range to the TIGERS and PANTHERS, and get in close for a chance at a kill. the Germans sought to stand off and kill the Russian armor at distance. Both sides had mixed success. And while the Russians withdrew, the German advance was stopped.

On July 13th, hitler called the battle off, sending the LEIBSTANDARTE to Italy [the Allies had invaded Sicily], and pulling the rst of the SSz. Corps into reserve. Follow up attacks by the Soviets were largely crushed. CITADEL was over.

So who won? Strategically, the Soviets. Germany's last offensive in the East was over. From now on the two armies would move in one direction -west. Tactically, the win went to the Germans. They destroyed at least three times as many tanks as they lost. But replacing their losses were almost impossible, while the Soviets would build over 50,000 T-34s [all models].( The Germans would build less than 1,400 TIGER Is for the whole war, and less than 500 TIGER IIs)

The die was cast. Hitler would lose his war in the East.

Hitler lost the war the moment he declared war on the USA, and his generals knew it!  In my mind, the greatest error of the 20th Century.  Had he not declared war on the USA, FDR would have been forced to concentrate his attention solely on the Pacific and stay out of Europe.

Objectively, Yes. From Hitler's point of view, not so much. FDR had spent 1940 and a good part of 1941 trying to get Hitler into a war with the United States. He followed policies that under international law would make the U.S a co-belligerent of Great Britain. How? Providing escorts for British merchantmen half-way into the Atlantic. Having U.S warships radio U-boat positions to the Royal Navy. Providing as military garrison for Iceland to [a] free up British troops for other purposes, and deny the island to the Germans.Eventually having U.S ships attack U-boats.

Raeder, Doenitz and the U-boat captains wanted Hitler to declare war in 1940, and in 1941. Hitler demurred.

In 1941, there was an undeclared war in the Atlantic between our ships and the U-boats. Hence, "The Good Ship Reuben James". The co-pilot on the PBY Catalina that spotted BISMARCK was an American. So Adolf had NO doubts where FDR stood. So it wasn't really a question of 'if' but 'when'. And when Hitler thought Japan had run the table [and was not fully aware of the catastrophe developing in front of Moscow], he figured why not 'now'?

Abysmally ignorant as he was of America's economic potential [as were most of the Japanese leadership], Hitler knew that in 1939 America ranked 16th or 17th in the world in military power. Between Portugal and Romania [I forget the order]. So he calculated he'd have two years before the U.S. presence was really felt. And considering the way the Germans handled the Americans in North Africa, he was just about right. But he ran out of time.

Going to war with America foolish? You bet. But illogical from Hitler's point of view? Not necessarily.

I have been thinking about this question. Will have one for you PzLdr! 

He did much the same with the Japanese and that worked.

There was no question about the provocations by FDR toward both nations.  I believe we had airmen in China shooting down the Japanese planes long before 1941.  And yes, we were doing everything we could to help Britain and then Russia in regard to battling Germany.

All I am saying is that had Hitler not declared war, I do not believe FDR would have had the freedom to do so.  And after December 7th, I believe FDR would have been under enormous pressure to focus only on the Pacific, so much so that the effort directed toward Europe may have had to be curtailed or dramatically cut back.  Hitler made everything easy for FDR after December 10th, 1941.

I absolutely agree withyou on this.

It has become a classic case of "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance": 'When the legend differs from the facts, print the legend'. Boudica's [also spelled Bouadic, Bouaddica, etc] rebellion has been the subject of novels, movies, documentaries, and a statue in London [where she and her two daughters appear in a ROMAN chariot].

And the version that has come down to us is of a doughy British freedom fighter leading the people of Britain in a revolt against the repressive Roman Empire of Nero Caesar, humbling the Legions and coming within an inch of driving the Romans from the British Isles; a combination of Maid Marian, Robin hood, William Wallace and the Black Prince. But is it true? I think not.

Boudica was queen of one of, if not the, most easternmost of the British tribes, the Iceni. Both she and her husband, Prestaugus, were clients of Rome, having submitted to Claudius at Camoludunum [Colchester] in around 40 AD. The Iceni, as well as the romans benefitted from the relationship. Boudica and her husband were left to govern their people, albeit with Roman supervision, trade developed, taxes were paid, and Prestaugus could rely on roman military support if needed.

Generally, the relationship worked well, although the Iceni revolted when the Roman governor demanded they surrender their weapons during the campaign in the west against Caractacus. That revolt was speedily put down, but Prestaugus was left on the throne. And so it went until his death.

It appears Boudica was always hostile to the Romans, which may explain why, in his will, Prestaugus left half his kingdom to his daughters, and half to Nero. He left his wife nothing. But whatever his wishes, and whatever his desire for peace, he failed. Roman law did not recognize gifting the daughters of client kings with their kingdoms. Loyal widows or queens in their own right, perhaps [see Cartimandua of the Brigantes] but not daughters. And then there was the money owed to Roman money lenders, Seneca [at that time favored at the court of Nero] being a major debt holder of the Iceni. And the Romans decided to call in the loans.

And then it got much worse. Boudica, perhaps smarting from being disinherited, treated the roman officials with contempt. Open and vocal contempt. Enough contempt to get her publicly flogged. Worse still, for reasons unclear, her daughters were raped. And then seizing anything of value, the romans withdrew. The ground had been sown for Boudica's revolt. It started in the Spring of 60 AD.

In 60 AD, there were four legions in Britan. The IXth Hispania was to the north of the Iceni. The IId Augusta was in southwest England. But the XXth and XIVth were in northwest Wales, on campaign. Their objective was the island of Mona [present day Anglesley]. They were there under the military governor Suetonius Paullinus to wipe out the Druids, who the Romans saw as the fomenters and leaders of unrest in the country. And aside from those four legions, fortress troops on the coastal ports, and retired legionary colonists, there was nothing between Boudica and Paullinus worth mentioning.

Boudica apparently sought alliance with other tribes to fight the Romans. Surprisingly, except for her neighbors, the Trinovantes, she had little, or no luck. The major tribes, the Brigante and Catavallauni [Caractacus' people], would have nothing to do with her. The tribes most recently engaged with the Romans in Wales, the Silures and Ordovices remained quiet. A number of warriors from other tribes joined her as her 'revolt' progressed, but there was surprisingly little support for her in Britain.


Still, she struck. And her first target was Camolodunum. Camoludunum had been the tribal capital of the Trinovantes. But the Romans dispossessed them, and made it the colonial capitol, a retirement colony for Roman legionaries, and the site of a huge temple to the former emperor, Claudius, which they made the Trinovantes pay for.

It was during the march on Camolundunum that Boudica's warriors fought their first of two engagements with the Roman Army. they ambushed a vexillation of the IXth legion, and wiped out the infantry, with the Legate, Cerialis, escaping with his cavalry to rejoin the rest of his legion. But the IXth was now out of the fight. And so, it turned out was the IId, whose legate refused Paullinus' orders to concentrate with the XIVth and XXth legions [the Legate fell on his sword when it was all over]. So almost from the beginning, Roman effective strength was cut in half. And that half was about as far away from Boudica as one could get.

The Iceni and Trinovante stormed Camoludunum. There were no walls, no defenses, and no troops, except the veterans. Civilians in the tens of thousands were murdered. Women had their breasts hacked off. People were crucified. Those seeking sanctuary in  Claudius' temple were burned to death. The town itself was razed to the ground. Archaeologists have found the layer of ash that marks its' destruction. And then Boudica moved on Londinium [London]. But Paullinus, with an escort, got there first. He determined that the city was indefensible, suggested the populace flee [many did], and rode back up Watling road to the northwest to join his oncoming legions and select a battlefield.

Londinium suffered the same fate as Camolundunum. Bu this time, to a greater degree, the victims included far greater numbers of Romanized Britons. they apparently had no future in Boudica's plans, whatever they were.

Her nextl success was the tribal capitol of the Aretrebes, traditional  enemies of the Trinovante. As usual, it was fire and slaughter. It was also her last 'victory'.

With some 100,000+ people [she had brought her tribe with her, of which some 80,000+ were warriors, Boudica began a somewhat leisurely pursuit of the Romans. When she found them, offering battle at some 1: 10 odds, it should have given her pause. But it didn't. And Boudica was about to learn two things, one of which she should have known from the immediate past: [1] Never engage a Roman in open battle, and [2] Never let a Roman general pick the battlefield.

Historians are not quite sure where the battle of Watling Road was fought. What they do know [from Tacitus] was that the romans were at the narrow end of a valley that funneled into a defile. Their flanks and rear were covered by forest. In other words, Boudica's warriors could only engage the Romans in a frontal attack. And that's what they did.

But the closer to the Romans the Iceni and Trinovantes got, the more constricted they became. the more constricted they became the fewer warriors could face the now equal number of Romans. The more constricted they became, the less able they were able to use their weapon of choice, the longsword. Not that it mattered all that muc.

At some 20-30 yards [normal range], the romans loosed two volleys of plia [their javelin. That alone broke the first charge. The Romans then advanced, and with their short swords, killed the wounded and anyone in front of them. They then withdrew, and waited to receive the second charge. When it came, they again stopped it with pila, and then, forming a saw tooth formation they advanced. And this time, with auxiliary cavalry breaking from the forest onto the tribal army's flanks, they didn't stop.

Boudica's army wavered. This was a hell of a lot different than butchering civilians. Then they broke, and fled back up the valley. But there was no escape. Boudica had lined up the carts, laden with loot across the top of the valley, so her tribespeople could view what she had anticipated to be her great victory. She had corked the bottle. And payment now came due. Caught between the Romans and the carts, Boudica's troops were scythed down. And with their blood up, the Romans didn't stop there.

According to Tacitus, the Romans killed some 80,000 Celts. No one knows how many were sold into slavery. Roman losses were put at 400 [probably deliberately low]. Boudica and her daughters fled the battlefield and disappeared from history. Boudica was reported as either a suicide or as dying of illness.

Paullinus carried fire and sword into the lands of the Trinovante and Iceni, aided by tribal contingents from several tribes whose people Boudica butchered. The Iceni suffered especially heavily, since for reasons known only to her, Boudica had forbidden sowing or storing food from the year before. The Iceni had nothing to eat. Paullinus was so brutal, that upon the recommendation of an envoy from Nero, he was recalled and replaced.

There would be other, minor revolts [the Brigantes for one], but nothing as big again. By and large peace came to Britain.

So how does the legend match up to the history? Poorly. IMO, Boudica engaged in a large scale, revenge raid, not a revolt to free the Britons. She made no effort to conciliate other tribes who didn't share her blood lust. She appeared to have no plan for what would follow her victory. She appeared to have no strategic plan for her revolt. After defeating the vexillation of the IXth, ALL the Roman military forces were on the other side of the country. She might have contemplated besieging the entry points for reinforcements from Gaul. She might have marched on the IId Legion, isolated in the southwest, and then tried to raise the Silures and Ordovices. She did none of those. Instead she chose to sack defenseless towns, and give a highly competent Roman general the time he needed to rally the troops he had, and select a battlefield that would negate her preponderance of troops, and allow him to slaughter them. Having lived through the roman invasion, the Roman victories at the Medway and the Thames, the death of Togodubnus, and the defeats of Caractacus, she should not have underestimated the Roman Army as she did. But she did, and the Iceni paid the price. But it is alovely legend.

It was the final attempt, in a series stretching back to the 1930s, to either arrest or, in this case, kill Adolf Hitler, the Fuehrer of Nazi Germany. It was a failure.

It all began with an unrelated group of diverse resistance cells, ranging from a bunch of intellectuals [the Kriesau Circle], to elements, and fairly high up elements, of the German Army. The one common element to these groups was their fear that Adolf Hitler's policies would lead them into a war Germany could not win, and into a German society unrecognizable to any civilized  person.

The events that led to the first timid steps of resistance were two. the first was the 1937 meeting with his senior commanders, memorialized in the Hossbach Memorandum, when Hitler told them he would go to war before 1942, and the earlier the better, and the second was the imminent invasion of Czechoslavakia  in 1938.

General Ludwig Beck, the Chief of the German General Staff, was opposed to the Czech adventure, and to the idea of a war he believed Germany was unprepared for, and rallied a group of officers into a plot to arrest or kill Hitler. the Munich pact put paid to that plot, General Beck [he was retired]and the resistance of the German Officer Corps.

And so it stayed, until BARBAROSSA. Now the military's resistance crystallized around two bases, the conviction Germany would not, and could not win the war, and for a group of officers led by their conscience, by the SS massacres in the East. The new driving force in the resistance was now not the senior officers in the German Army, but the colonels. And primus inter pares among them was the Chief of Staff of Army Group Center, Col. [later Maj. Gen.] Henning von Tresckow.

By early 1944, Tresckow had engineered at least one attempt on Hitler's life [a bomb smuggled onto Hitler's plane that failed to detonate], planned two others [a suicide bomber (hand grenade), believe it or not, thwarted by a Hitler change of plans], and an assassination of Hitler by handgun at lunch with Army Group Center's officers [vetoed by Field Marshal von Kluge].

But Tresckow had one significant success. He had recruited Col. Count Claus von Stauffenburg, the Deputy commander of the Reserve Army into the plot. And it was Stauffenburg who seized on a plan to secure Berlin from attack, WALKURIE, as the way to go about the plot.

The plotters faced problems above WALKURIE's implementation. First, they could get neither recognition, nor much help [they did furnish the bomb] from the British. Having been burned in 1939 when the RSHA kidnapped the two top British agents in Western Europe from Holland via a bogus resistance movement, the British were leery of ANY group labeling itself as the resistance in Germany, especially in the military. Second, they lacked a common goal. Some of those aware of,or peripherally involved [Rommel], did not want Hitler dead. They wanted him tried in a court. Second, there was inner friction with the Kriesau Circle, and other groups over what type of government should be formed to succeed the Nazis, and who would be in it. And third was that the resisters were unsure of the reaction of the German military, especially in the East when they killed Hitler. Still, they went forward.

Stauffenburg brought the bomb to Hitler's Rastenburg HQ on July 20th [at least one other potential attack was aborted because Himmler was not present. His presence was now waived.] where he was due to make a report on the status of the Reserve Army as part of a daily briefing. Because of the heat, the meeting was not held in the concrete briefing bunker, but a wooden building., which dissipated much of the blast. Having planted the bomb, and set the detonator, Stauffenburg left the building. When the bomb went off, he assumed Hitler was dead, and hotfooted it to Berlin to implement the rest of the plan. From there, things went rapidly south.

Whjile arresting various Nazi officials, Maj. Remer, the commander of the GROSSDEUTSCHLAND battalion charged with carrying out WALKURIE went to arrest the Propaganda minister, Goebbels. the latter put Remer on the phone [the plotters forgot to cut the lines] with a very alive Hitler. the result was the collapse of the plot in Berlin. By midnight, Beck was an attempted suicide, and Stauffenburg and his cohorts had been executed on the orders of the Reserve Army commander, General Fromm [hoping to obliterate his own involvement. to no avail. He was shot in early 1945]. But it didn't end there.

The military governor of Paris, von Stulpnagel had arrested all the SS in Paris. His suicide attempt failed. Kluge, in France was recalled. His suicide succeeded. Rommel was forced to commit suicide. Using the doctrine of Sippenhaft, the SS and Gestapo arrested some 5,000 people. Army officers were tried by a Court of Honor, helmed by Rundstedt and Guderian, andif warranted thrown out of the German Army, so they could be tried by Freisler's "People's Court". At least one Field Marshal [von Witzleben], and one Col. Gen. [Hoeppner] were convicted along with other officers and civilians, and executed [many by hanging with piano wire from meat hooks]. People were still being killed while the war was winding down. But 20 JULI [as the Germans would put it] was the last attempt on Hitler's life during the time of the Third Reich. And it, and it's aftermath was an epic, bloody failure.

Thank you .....another very good history lesson!!!

It has been called history's most perfect battle. It originated the double envelopment, and then some. And when it was over, the largest army Rome had ever fielded was destroyed in an afternoon.

It had begun in Spain, at a city called Sagentum. A client city of Rome, it lay in territory held, by treaty, by Carthage. And the commander of the Carthaginian army in Iberia, Hannibal Barca, decided to use it as the pretext he needed to bring about a war with Rome. More accurately, he sought to re-start hostilities that had smoldered since the First Punic war that had seen Carthage defeated, and humiliated by Rome. He succeeded.

Hannibal's next move was to move an army of some 90,000 men, and some 37 elephants overland, through Gaul, to Italy. His plan to cross the lower Rhone was thwarted by the arrival of a consular Army under one of the Scipios [a family he would meet again]; and Hannibal then made his epic march through the Alps, erupting into the Po valley in 218 BC. By then, Hannibal had lost at least 1/3 of his men, and over 30 of his elephants. Still, he caught the romans by surprise, and after recruiting from the Celts of northern Italy, who hated and feared the Romans, he began his march south, into Roman territory.

By 216 BC, Hannibal had run up a string of victories, at Tinictus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasimine. In the process, he dismembered increasingly more roman formations. He seemed to have adopted the strategy of trying to split Rome's allies [the Socii] from the Romans themselves by releasing the troops from Allied states, but killing, or enslaving Roman prisoners, possibly in the hopes of forcing Rome to treat for peace. If that was the plan, it had, as of 216, failed. On top of that, the Romans had adopted the strategy of Fabius Cuncator ['The Delayer'] of avoiding a general engagement with Hannibal, and concentrating on his forage units and scouting detachments.

But in 216, Hannibal was in Apulia, at the supply center of Cannae, Fabius' six months command as dictator was over, and two new Consuls, Paullius and Varro were in command of the Army [armies were commanded by consuls. They would alternate command by the day]. And what an army it was. Composed of veterans and new levies, it comprised some 16 legions, with Allied infantry and cavalry, as well as Roman infantry and cavalry. Estimates of its size vary from somewhere over 60,000 to somewhere north of 80,000. It was the largest army rome had ever fielded.

To face them, Hannibal had an army of somewhere between 35,000 and 50,000 men. It was composed of Iberians, Libyans, Celts, Carthaginians, Numidians and others, mostly mercenaries. Hannibal had two principal advantages: all his troops were veterans, and he had superiority in cavalry, both in numbers and quality.

Of the two Roman commanders, Paullius was the more cautious, Varro the more aggressive. So Hannibal offered battle on August 1st, fairly sure that Paullius, in command that day, would decline. He did. And Hannibal, fairly sure that Varro would attack the next day, prepared his masterpiece.

The Carthaginian army formed to the west of the Aufidus River. The Libyan infantry, in phalanx, was on both wings, with the center held by Celtic and Iberian infantry, in a formation that bowed out toward the Roman center. The Iberians and Celts were considered the weakest of Hannibal's infantry, and their location in the center was noted by Varro. He formed his legions in a grouping twice as deep as normal, and his intent was to break Hannibal's center, split his army into two wings, and destroy them piecemeal.

But as Varro's infantry advanced in the center, the Carthaginian heavy horse attacked the Roman cavalry on Varro's right and drove it from the field. Then, instead of pursuing the Roman horse, the Carthaginians rode across the back the legions and joined the Numidians in attacking the Allied cavalry and destroying them, or driving them off.

While this was going on Varro thought he was driving Hannibal's center back, and breaking through, when it actuality he was facing a staged withdrawal, led by Hannibal himself, and his brother, Mago. What Varro was doing, was driving deeper and deeper into a narrower and narrower pocket with his troops squeezed tighter and tighter together. And the more constricted their units, the less ability the Romabns had to wield their weapons.

Then two things happened. The Libyans, ignored on the flanks, wheeled inward. At the same time the combined Carthaginian cavalry descended on the rear of the Roman Army. The Romans were now surrounded, largely incapable of wielding their weapons, and forced into a smaller and smaller area. The killing went on until dark.

Estimates of Roman losses run from some 56,000 to 70,000 men. To put that in context, the Romans lost in one day more troops than were lost by both sides in three days at Gettysburg, or the United States lost in the entire Viet Nam war.

Some 10,000 or less Romans escaped. They were formed into two legions and banished to Sicily, Paullius died, but Varro survived - in disgrace. Several hundred Romans were captured.

After the battle [he lost some 8,000 men] Hannibal stayed in the vicinity, causing Maharbal, one of his cavalry commanders to remark that Hannibal knew how to win a victory, but not how to use it. In Rome, 30 days of public mourning were declared, but the word 'peace' was banned, and public crying was forbidden. The Romans actually offered human sacrifices to the Gods to supplicate them. When an embassy from Hannibal approached the city, they were told to leave without any discussion of terms. The romans also refused to let the families of Romans captured on the battlefield ransom their relatives. 

Strategically, in the short term, Rome lost some of its southern allies, principally Capua, and Tarantum [both would be reconquered, with massive bloodshed either before, or shortly after Hannibal  left Italy. Hieronomus of Syracuse also allied with Hannibal, but was assassinated before he could do any damage. All Philip V of Macedon accomplished by allying with Carthage was to draw Rome's ire, and attention. And after they finished with Carthage, he paid the price at Cynocephaelus.In the long term, their was no strategic difference. Hannibal had neither the men, nor siege machinery to besiege Rome. Rome continued to build new armies. Hannibal's forces were attritted by battle, disease and desertion. Reinforcements from Carthage either never came, or were beaten off.

Hannibal, for all his tactical brilliance failed to understand his enemy at all. Rome's central Italian allies stood firm, and as a result, the Romans had almost unlimited manpower at their disposal. Within a year of Cannae, Roman armies in the northern Po were annihilating a relief force from Spain led by Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal [they threw his head into Hannibal's camp]. Other Roman armies pinned Hannibal into a smaller and smaller area of southern Italy, a large scale Cannae, if you will. Still other roman armies, including the Sicily legions conquered Carthaginian Spain, and then invaded Carthage itself. And Hannibal never truly grasped the implacability of Rome itself, until perhaps, he looked into the eyes of that last of the Scipios, Scipio Africanus, shortly before he crushed Hannibal at Zama - in North Africa - down the road from Carthage.

It was the MAJOR success of the German campaign of 1941. It resulted in the capture or killing of some 660,000 Soviet troops, and the destruction of the Soviet Southwest Front. And yet it has been argued that this success was a major strategic failure that led to the end of BARBAROSSA's successes  on the Eastern Front in 1941, and the eventual defeat of the Germans in the East.

When the Germans attacked on 22 JUN 1941, 3.5 million troops, German, Finn and Rumanian; they were concentrated in three Army Groups [except the Finns, who were operating independently], North, Center and South. Of the three, South faced the most formidable task. First the terrain highly favored the defense. Three rivers ran, generally and sequentially, across most of the Army Group's front. The Army Group's left flank was barred by the Pripyat Marsh, a huge swamp that separated the Army Group from Army Group Center, and would until it was passed. So Army Group South had to attack from two different directions.

Then there were the Soviets. The Soviets' plans were based on the belief that any major German thrust would be directed at Ukraine. So the bulk of their forces were located there, as was the majority of their new KV-1 heavy and T-34 medium tanks. the Soviets were also commanded by the very able General Kirponos.

And while the Germans were, in fact going to attack Ukraine, it was not with the sizable force the Soviets expected. That lay to the north of the Pripyat Marsh, with Army Group Center. And their objective was Moscow, and the objective of the entire campaign, as the General Staff saw it. Which would have been a major surprise to Adolf Hitler.

Hitler saw the war in the East as having three inter-related objectives: seizing Lebensraum [living space - colonies], acquiring the natural resources [oil, grain, coal, metals] from the Ukraine and Caucasus, as well as the industrial capacity of the Leningrad area and the Donbass, and depriving Britain of its last potential ally in Europe while gainsaying any British naval blockade.

But Hitler's plans were not Field Marshal Walter von Brauchitsch's [C. in C., German Army], nor Col. Gen. Fritz Halder's [Chief of the German General Staff]. They were fixated on Moscow. And by massaging, orders, and ignoring the Fuehrer's wishes, the Opoeration BARBAROSSA that took place much more closely conformed to their wishes than his.

So while Army Group South [Gerd von Rundstedt] had the 6th Army [Germany's largest], as well as the 17th and 11th Armies [plus two Rumanian armies], it only had one Panzer Group, the 1st [von Kleist]. And after breaking past the initial obstacles, Rundstedt faced a front that blocked both flanks from exploitation. to the south was the Black Sea, and later the Sea of Azov. To the north, first the Pripyat Marsh, and then the Dnieper River, which eventually curved in front of the Army Group at Dnieperprotovsk.  It was a daunting task, especially when Kirponos held to Rundstedt's northern flank, harrying him, while more Soviet troops moved to Kiev, and then along the Dnieper, with other units fighting the Germns from the front, and the Rumanians in the south. In a word, it was VERY slow going, and Rundstedt had not been able to force the river.

The going for Army Group Center [Field Marshal Fedor von Bock] was much easier. Aside from 4th Army [von Kluge], and 9th Army [Strauss], Bock had TWO panzer groups, 2d [Guderian], and 3rd [Hoth]. He was in Minsk in less than a week, and by early August, he was at Smolensk, less than 200 miles from Moscow. But then, the crisis erupted.

If you looked at a situation map at that time, the German front of AG Center and AG South, looked like the east end of Long Island, i.e an open crocodile's mouth, with a large gaping area between the jaws. Rundstedt was still across the river from Kiev, and Kleist was just west of Dnieperprotovsk. The Dnieper had no major German bridgeheads. To say Rundstedt was behind schedule would be an understatement. Not that Bock cared. With negligible Soviet forces in front of him, he was preparing for the final offensive against Moscow. But then Rundstedt asked for help. He wanted troops from AG Center, to strike out 90 degrees south of their axis of advance, and come down behid the Soviets, link up with Kleist, and encircle the Russians. Bock was not disposed to do that. Neither were Brauchitsch, Halder, Guderian or Hoth. Enter Adolf Hitler, referee.

Hitler flew into Smolensk to arbitrate among his commanders. To say he was surprised at the disregard for his wishes Brauchitsch and Halder had displayed in their planning would put it mildly. But the usual suspects, aside from those two, lined up as one would have expected. Rundstedt and his commanders [Reichenau, Von Salmuth, Schoberth and Kleist] forcefully asked for help. Bock, Guderian and Hoth argued for Moscow. The wild cards turned out to be  Bock's infantry army commanders, Kluge and Strauss.

Bock's right flank was some 300 miles long, and separated by most of Ukraine from Rundstedt. The only troops in that vast area were Russian. The Germans had started the offensive very light on reserves. Now their frontline infantry was being dissipated guarding the flank from Soviet attack. Kluge and Strauss backed Rundstedt. Hitler ordered Guderian, and supporting troops south. By the time the smoke cleared [26 SEP], the Soviets facing Rundstedt had been killed [including Kirponos], captured, or fled [Budenny Timoshenko, Khruschev], all made easier by Stalin's refusal to listen to the pleas of his generals and give up Kiev, and abandon Ukraine. Within several weeks, AG Center and South had linked up, the line had been shortened, reserves had been constituted, and the Grmans held Kursk and Kharkov, Rundstedt was driving on Rostov on the Don, and Guderian had been re-deployed for TYPHUN, the drive by AG CENTER on Moscow. But Rundstedt was driven out of Rostov in late November [the first time the German Army retreated in WW II], the attack on Moscow was stopped, and the Germans were driven back almost to Smolensk [6 DEC], and BARBAROSSA was a failure.

And yet many historians blame the German failure on the Kiev encirclement. The argument goes that the Germans could have taken Moscow in September, but for the sideshow to the south, and that the failure to seize Moscow then was the reason the campaign failed.

I disagree. Under that rationale, the single thin thrust [remind anyone of MARKET-GARDEN?] would have won the war. Why? the Soviets showed no reluctance to move their capital to Kubiyshev during TYPHUN. Moscow as a rail center? AG North had already suspended operations against Leningrad, and the Russians to the east of Rundstedt did not require the Moscow rail terminus. And then there was the situation facing the Germans in August. The two main army groups were separated by several hundred miles of enemy territory, holding large numbers of Soviet troops and tanks. Both the right flank of AG Center and the left flank of AG South were several hundred miles long, and thinly held by troops needed, and earmarked for offensive operations elsewhere. The German reserves for the entire Eastern Front were thin, to non-existent. Casualties were high, and mounting. To ignore that situation was stupidity of the highest order. But senior German military eyes were fixed, to the exclusion of common sense reality, to all else.

After the war the generals, ignoring Kluge and Strauss, tried to shift the blame onto Hitler and Rundstedt alone. They largely succeeded.
But, IMO, the Kiev Encirclement was neither a failure, nor the fault of two men. The situation that required the operation was the fault of many. But as the saying goes, "Victory has a hundred fathers. Defeat is an orphan".

Just love reading these! 

Thank you once again!

Haha!

http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-history/hannibal/videos/the-death-of-hannibal

Delenda est Carthago

I'm a Romanophile.

Hamilcar Barca didn't commit suicide as the video says. He was killed on campaign in Spain.

By summer, 1945, the U.S. military was deep in planning the invasion of Japan. It was a daunting task. By now, just about everything in Japan worth being bombed had been bombed. the Imperial Japanese Navy was virtually non-existent. the Empire had been shorn of almost all her overseas possessions, and except for armies in china, the Kwantung Army in Manchuria, and troops in Korea, the only troops of the imperial Army that existed outside Japan were stationed in a series of Pacific islands, bypassed and useless.And yet, the Japanese refused to surrender, 'unconditionally', or otherwise.

The Kamikaze [named for the typhoons that had destroyed two Mongol invasion fleets, but not so called by the Japanese themselves], had expanded to man crewed torpedoes, rocket propelled aircraft, and small surface vessels. Civilians, including women and children,  were being taught to fight with everything available, including bamboo spears. Projected casualties were projected to be appalling. so the question became, short of invasion, what to do? And in a span of three days, August 6th to August 9th, the answer was found.

On August 6th, at around 0830, the B-29 bomber 'Enola Gay', dropped the first uranium atomic bomb on Hiroshima, a secondary target. Hiroshima was the HQ for the southern defense zone of Japan, which included the initial landing sites on Kyushu, the Island to the south of Honshu. Hiroshima was also the chief disembarkation port for troops being re-deployed from China, and the chief embarkation point for the deployment of troops south to Kyushu. So it was a worthwhile target in its own right. The devastation was beyond expectation, and the U.S waited in vain for the Japanese government's acceptance of the Potsdam Declaration, and unconditional surrender. That acceptance was not forthcoming. The militarists in the Cabinet, both Army and Navy wanted to fight on. then two things changed their minds. The first, of course, was history's first plutonium bomb detonation over Nagasaki, courteousy of the B-29 'Bock's Car' on August 9th. The second was the effective date [from the day before, and as agreed at Potsdam] of the Soviet Union's declaration of war on Japan, and the Red Army's invasion of Manchuria by Soviet troops under Marshal Vasilevsky. Attacking from three directions with three fronts [Transbaikal-Malinovsky; 1st Eastern-Maretskov; and 2d Eastern-Pukavev], the Red Army brought 11 infantry armies, 1 tank army, 2 mechanized brigades, 3 air armies, and other formations against the once vaunted Kwantung Army. But the latter was well past its heyday, and the Soviet steamroller hardly broke stride in it's offensive.

The Soviet attack deeply shocked the Japanese, who had been trying to enlist the U.S.S.R as a go-between with the U.S. Coupled with the two bombs, and the rapid Soviet advance [They not only took Manchuria, but Korea up to the 38th parallel, and part of the Sakhalin island chain], the next meeting of the Japanese cabinet was actually TIED, 3 to 3 over the issue of peace. And for the first time since the Meiji restoration that tie was broken by the emperor, Hirohito himself, who voted for peace, provided he was left on the throne.

Once Hirohito agreed to be overseen by the Allied governor general, MacArthur, the deal was struck. On August 15th, for the first time in his rule, the Japanese people heard their emperor's voice talking about a 'terrible bomb' and 'bearing the unbearable'. Aside from the formal surrender on September 2d, on the U.S.S Missouri in Tokyo Bay, Japan's was over.

But getting to that point created problems for the future. The Soviets opened Manchuria [and its weapon stockpiles] to the Chinese Communists of Mao Tze Dung. Within 4 years, China would be lost. And the 38th parallel in Korea would remain peaceful only one year past that, when on June 25th, 1950, the North Korean Army moved south in a bid to conquer the southern half of the peninsula.

And the 'unconditional' Japanese surrender? Not so fast. Hirohito kept his throne [and avoided prosecution as a war criminal], as a condition to Japan's surrender. One wonders how many lives might have been saved, and Red influence prevented, if the U.S had reached terms with Japan before the bombing of August 6th. But that's sheer speculation, and we'll never know.

During the battles around the Falaise Gap, the 101st SS SCHWERE [Heavy] Panzer Battalion was attached to the 12th SS HITLERJUGEND Panzer Division, commanded by Kurt Meyer, formerly of the 1st SS Panzer Division LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER. With the 101st Pz. Bn. came SS Hauptsturmfuehrer Michael Wittmann.

Wittmann had joined the Waffen SS in 136, after serving in the German Army. Assigned to the LEIBSTANDARTE, he served in Poland,  France and the Balkans in the reconnaissance battalion. Then with BARBAROSSA, Wittmann served with a STURMGESCUTZ III assault gun, and then with a Panzer III company. In 1942, Wittmann attended SS Officer Candidate School at Bad Tolz, and after being commissioned an SS Untersturmfuehrer [2d Lt.], he was trained on the TIGER I tank.

Wittmann 'made his bones' in the battle of Kursk, in July, 1943. He destroyed some 30 tanks in a week of combat, plus 'soft skinned vehicles', AT guns, self propelled guns and artillery.

By the time he reached Normandy in 1944, Wittman had added prodigiously to his score of 'kills', and been promoted to SS Obersturmfuehrer [1st Lt.]. Then came Villers-Bocage, and promotion to SS Hauptsturmfuehrer [SS Captain]. Less than 2 months later, Wittmann was leading a group of TIGER and Mark IV Panzers toward some high ground Meyer wanted taken and held. Unknown to Wittmann, the high ground had been seized by Canadian and British Armor units, who were paused, waiting for an air attack to signal their next advance.

Aware of some Free Polish armor to his front, Wittmann led his tanks over open ground toward the Poles[Wittmann had earlier declined a transfer to the rear to act as an instructor at the panzer schools]. An attack from his rear flank caused a fire in his TIGER [007]. The tank exploded, blowing the turret off. Michael Wittmann's war was over.

Wittmann was credited with anywhere from 135 to 142 enemy tanks, 132 artillery pieces, and several hundred trucks, jeeps, etc. He was the holder of the Knights Cross with Swords and Oakleaves, the Iron Cross,First Class, the Iron Cross, Second Class, the Panzer Assault Badge and the Wounds Badge. He is buried in a German Military Cemetery in France.

He was born in Ohio, but by the mid-1850s, he was living on the Kansas- Missouri border. He'd been a schoolteacher, a teamster, and a criminal. And with the coming of the Civil War, he became a Southern guerilla, a 'Bushwhacker', with a commission as a Confederate Captain under the Confederacy's Partisan Ranger Act. His name was William Clarke Quantrill, and he would be the most infamous of as bloody a bunch of murderers, thieves and scoundrels as ever sat a horse.

Quantrill had lived in Kansas and Missouri, but it seems a stint as a teamster with Albert Sidney Johnston's campaign against the Mormons in 1858, and led him into the orbit of pro-slavery Missourians. And Quantrill demonstrated that allegiance by organizing Unionist 'Jayhawker' raids on Missouri slave holders, and then betraying the Unionists to their putative victims. With the outbreak of the Civil War, Quantrill joined the [pro-Confederate] Missouri State Guard, and when the Unioist forces triumphed, he took to the bush and became a guerilla.

The Border war was the most vicious combat in the entire Civil War. At first, it appears Quantrill attempted to follow the rules, paroling prisoners, etc. But the union Army refused to treat guerillas, most with no recognizable uniform, as legitimate soldiers. they executed the ones they caught. Quantrill caught on quickly, as did the rest of the Bushwhackers, and the Black Flag was soon out. Atrocities on both sides mounted, and the Union commander, Ewing [Sherman's brother-in-law] quickly applied more and more stringent policies to deprive the rebel guerillas of their support. One of those actions was tyo arrest female relatives of known guerillas and imprison them in a hotel in Kansas City. the hotel partially collapsed , injuring one of Cole Younger's sisters, and killing another. Another woman killed was the sister of William "Bloody Bill" Anderson. The guerillas were outraged and called for blood. Quantrill answered the call.

Quantrill was not the Supremo of the Missouri guerillas, but he was primus inter pares. So when he called a meeting of the various bands, the Who's Who of the guerilla forces showed up. They included Dave Poole, Anderson, George Todd [Quantrill's first Lieutenant, and such rank and file as Frank James. Cole Younger, and Little Archie Clements. What Quantrill proposed both stunned and enthralled them.

Quantrill saw the capitol of Kansas, Lawrence, as the root of all evil. It was the home of U.S. Senator James Lane, a leading Jayhawker, and a hotbed of abolition. Quantrill had lived their before the war. He now proposed to raid it, burn it, and kill all the men and boys over 12. To do that required crossing a somewhat fortified and patrolled border, and an approach march of some 50 miles through Union territory. Despite that, Quantrill assembled a force of some 400 men for the operation [about 350 guerillas, and some 50 Confederate troops, who did NOT engage in any of the atrocities on August 21st.

Quantrill led his force out of the woods along the Little Blue River, and riding mostly at night, with impressed guides from the local population, arrived at Mount Ouriat outside Lawrence on the morning of the 21st. Leaving lookouts to scan for potential U.S troops, Quantrill handed out death lists, and dividing his raiders into groups, led the guerillas into town. One of the first casualties was a minister milking his cow.

The guerillas shot every man and teenaged boy they found, but aside from that their behavior varied widely. Some helped women move furniture and possessions out of houses they were about to burn. Some spare boys. In other cases, while no woman was harmed, no mercy or consideration was shown.

Jim Lane escaped capture, hiding in a corn field. "Red Leg" Jennison wasn't found. But approximately 162 of Lawrence's male population weren't so lucky. They were all murdered, with special efforts being made to kill Lawrence's free blacks. Most of the town was burned down by the time Quantrill left in late morning. An ineffective pursuit failed to close with his main body before they melted back into the Missouri woods. Quantrill lost only one man, a raider so drunk he failed to hear the recall order, and who was ripped limb from limb by the Lawrence survivors and relief troops.

Quantrill added to his success by attacking a Union trop column near Baxter Springs on his way south to winter in Texas. Although he failed to kill or capture the Union general riding with the column, the carnage he wreaked was substantial. And the bodies showed mutilations and scalping [Anderson].

Texas proved Quantrill's undoing. The Confederate authorities, having been apprised of Lawrence, and seeing scalps on Anderson's horse's bridle, were less than pleased to see them. They became even less pleased when Anderson's men began robbing Texans. Quantrill was ordered to arrest Anderson. Anderson refused to be arrested and rode away. He never served under Quantrill again [he did serve with him, briefly, in 1864]. Then George Todd faced Quantrill down over a card game, and took control of Quantrill's band. When he rode north in the Spring of 1864, Quantrill had only 6 followers [Frank James and Cole Younger had joined the regular Confederate Army after Lawrence].

Quantrill spent most of 1864 laying low with his bride or common law wife or mistress [take your pick]. He did participate in the ambush of the Union pursuit force after the Centralia massacre [Anderson], and he joined in an attack on a brick block house in a Union held town he counseled against, after being outvoted by Todd and Anderson. He then seemed to vanish.

By 1865, much had changed. Anderson was dead, killed in an ambush, and his head put on a pole. Todd was killed fighting alongside regular Confederate units led by Jo Shelby. Little Archie Clements had been shot dead in his home town by Union troops. Quantrill decided to break east to Virginia, perhaps to try and lose himself in Lee's Army. He got as far as Kentucky. Caught by a Union guerilla force in a barn, Quantrill was mortally wounded and paralyzed trying to escape [Frank James did get away]. Taken to a hospital Quantrill converted to Catholicism on his deathbed. And it would seem the life and times of William Clarke Quantrill were over. Except they weren't. Quantrill's skull was found in an Ohio college fraternity house in the 1960s. It was buried with military honors by the Sons of the Confederacy shortly after.

Quantrill, of all the bushwhackers, is the only one to still fascinate over a century and a half after his death [the James brothers and Cole Younger excepted]. He has been the subject of, or a major character in, at least five movies, from 1940's "Dark Command" to the recent Ang Lee film "Ride with the Devil". There are at least five or more biographies of him [See: "The Devil Knows How To Ride"]. The question is why. One reason is Quantrill did have military talent. He was a master of guerilla tactics [the James Boys robbed banks with them for 15 years]. Another was he was extremely vicious in a very vicious war. The combination makes for an interesting study.

Quantrill cast a very long shadow over the Border War. In many ways, he still does.

Thank you PzLdr! I never knew of the atrocities on both sides. Again very good reading!

Adolf Hitler hated many things about the Versailles Treaty. But one of the things he hated most was the "War Guilt" clause that laid sole responsibility for the war on Imperial Germany.  that, however, didn't stop Hitler from announcing to his senior commanders in 1937 that they had to be ready for war before 1942 [when Hitler thought Germany would have lost its early rearmament advantage], and trying to start a war over:[a] Austria], the Sudetenland, and [c] the rest of Czechoslavakia.

By 1939, several things occurred that made war inevitable. First, by occupying the rest of Czech [non-German] lands, Hitler had lost his 'return to the Reich' fig leaf, and the gullibility of the leaders of France and Britain. Second, Britain and France then guaranteed the independence of Poland. Third, Poland declined a junior partnership in the Axis in return for Danzig, the Polish Corridor and free passage for German troops to attack the USSR. Fourth, Hitler signed a non-aggression Pact with Stalin, secretly divvying up Poland and the Baltic States. Hitler was now free to attack Poland.

But that war guilt clause nagged at him. He wanted the war, but he also wanted a plausible excuse for his actions. Enter Reinhard Heydrich and his boss, Reichsfuehrer  SS Heinrich Himmler.

Heydrich was head of the SS Security Police, the Sicherheitsdienst [SD] and the Sicherpolitzei [the Security Police], an amalgam of the Kriminalpolitzei [Criminal Police] and the Geheime Staats Politizei [Secret State Police - Gestapo for short], as well as being head of Interpol for 1939-1940. Heydrich decided to fake an attack, with SD personnel on a radio station in Gleiwitz, while it was on the air. A Polish speaking officer would then take over the microphone, and yell threats in Polish. Gunshots would be fired, and a dummy rescue force would eventually appear and drive the 'Poles' away.

To add a touch of realism, Heydrich altered the basic plan with "Operation Canned Meat". Admiral Canaris' Abwehr was required to furnish a complete Polish uniform. SS Gruppenfuehrer Heinrich 'Gestapo' Mueller furnished a corpse, newly executed by lethal injection, from one of the camps. The corpse, then shot, was left outside the radio station.

It was bad theater, but Hitler didn't care. When he spoke to the Reichstag on 1 SEP., he spoke in terms of "returning fire" and responding to the Polish attack. He had his excuse, even as his Wehrmacht engaged the Poles from three sides.

Eventually, after the founding of the Reichssicherheithauptamt [the RSHA], Heydrich had a model of the radio station and its surroundings built on a table in the lobby, which he would show visitors while mournfully declaiming that "this was how the war started". And considering where he was making that statement, he was telling the absolute truth.

By 1939, reality on the ground was coming into synchronicity with Hitler's world view. Austria and Czechoslavakia were his. So was the port of Memel. Only Poland stood between Germany and the Lebensraum Hitler intended to add to the Reich - the western USSR. And Hitler prepared to act.

Initially, the Germans had tried diplomacy. They gave Poland a piece of the now dismembered Czechoslavakia. They offered Poland a junior partnership in the Axis, provided the Poles gave Germany back Danzig and the Polish Corridor, either given to Poland as part of the Versailles Treaty [the Corridor], or put under Poland's governance as a League of Nations trustee [Danzig]. The Poles refused.

Then, after Hitler gobbled up the rest of Czechoslavakia, Britain issued a guarantee of Polish sovereignty, dragging France along with her, and signed an alliance. the Poles dug in their heels.

Britain and France thought the German Army would act as a brake on Hitler, since the concept of zweifruntenkrieg [two front war] was anathema to them. And to further bolster their own position, the British and French began to woo the wild card in the deck, Stalin, with a view toward a collective defensive pact against Germany. The problem proved to be the Poles. The Soviets had posed such an arrangement back in 1938, during the Sudeten crisis, but it foundered on the Poles' refusal to allow Soviet troops transit over their territory to Czech lands. The Poles were in less of a mood to allow Soviets into Poland now [As the foreign minister said, "with the Germans we lose our lives, with the Russians, our souls"], especially with their Franco-British guarantee. Still, at a somewhat leisurely pace [they traveled by boat], a fairly low level group of diplomats and military officers traveled to Moscow for a series of talks with Voroshilov and the Soviet government. While that dragged on, Hitler's foreign minister, Von Ribbentrop flew to Moscow to begin talks with Stalin and Molotov. The result was the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of 1939. On its surface it was all the usual. But the attached Secret Protocols were another whole ball of wax. Hitler and Stalin agreed to carve up Poland, and the Baltic States. Poland was to be divided. The two front war was off [until 1941].

Poland was in a very bad position. Her military was outnumbered and outclassed by a better trained, better armed enemy. That enemy surrounded her on three sides, north: East Prussia; west: The Reich; and south: The Czech mountains. Topographically, except for those mountains, Poland's major defense lines were dependent on rivers. Poland was basically as flat as a pool table.

Despite this, the initial Polish war plans called for the concentration of their troops in some five army groups on the border [with a reserve]; the intent being not only to hold ALL Polish territory, but to counterattack into Germany. Not only did Poland put the bulk of their troops into the jaws of their enemy, they positioned them almost down their throat.

The Germans were organized into two Army Groups. AG North [Fedor von Bock] consisted of the 3rd Army [von Kuechler] in East Prussia, and the 4th Army [von Kluge] in Western Pomerania. Attached to the 4th Army was the XIXth Panzer Corps [Guderian], which was intended to cut the Corridor, move into East Prussia, and then southeast toward Brest-Litovsk. AG South [Gerd von Rundstedt] included the 8th Army [Blaskowitz], 10th Army [Reichenau], and 14th Army [von List]. Rundstedt also had Kleist's Panzer Corps. His task was to engage and encircle the bulk of the Polish forces, split them, drive on Warsaw, and drive east with the 14th Army.

The Germans deployed the bulk of their Army, some 44 infantry divisions, 5 Panzer Divisions, 5 'light' divisions [an amalgam of Panzer, horse cavalry and mechanized infantry, two Waffen SS units, and three air fleets of the Luftwaffe against Poland [as well as the pre-Dreadnaught battleship SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN]. The West was held by some 10 divisions, and one air fleet, with no armor [they did have the Siegfried Line].

First blood went to the Luftwaffe, bombing a city near the border, and then expanding its attacks to airfields, troop headquarters and communication hubs. This was particularly disastrous because the Poles had stopped their initial mobilization at the urgings of France, and the replacement depots, brimming with recruits were hit.

At almost the same time, SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN opened fire on the Westerplatte fortress in Danzig. Despite that bombardment, and sustained German infantry attacks, the Poles put up a courageous defense that lasted over a week.

The rest of the first few days did not go well for the Poles. Guderiasn sliced the corridor, crossed into East Prussia and began to drive deep into the Polish rear. Kleist split two of the Polish Army groups, and followed by 10th Army, headed for Warsaw [the 4th Panzer reached the suburbs of Warsaw in a week, but was driven out by Polish infantry. The 14th Army drove east, swinging towards the northeast. Kuechler crossed the Narew river and drive south. The Germans were in the midst of creating a concentric double envelopment.

Then, at the Bzura River, the Poles counterattacked, driving back elements of Blaskowitz's  8th Army. At first the Poles made excellent progress, attacking out of a forest. But Rundstedt recalled elements of 10th Army, not only reinforcing Blaskowitz, but creating an encirclement [Kluge sent troops from the north]. Then the Luftwaffe pounded the Poles from the air. Within a short time, the Poles broke. Those that failed to break through German lines and retreat to the East were captured.

By now the Polish Army fell back, in some disorder, behind the Vistula River; to wait for the Autumn rains to turn the roads into quagmires, and for the British and French to attack from the west, causing the Germans to redeploy to the West, and to relieve the pressure on the Poles. Neither the rains, nor the Allies ever came to the rescue. It was the driest Fall in memory. And aside from a 1/2 mile penetration near Strasbourg, followed by a fairly rapid retreat, the French did nothing [the British did less].

By now the Germans had closed their inner ring around Warsaw, and their outer ring around Brest-Litovsk. the concentric double envelopment was a done deal. And then the other shoe dropped.

On September 17th, in accord with the Secret Protocols of the Non-Aggression Pact, the Red Army invaded Eastern Poland. The Poles were now faced with a two front war, one they couldn't win. The government fled to Romania [as did what Polish troops that could].Warsaw held out to the end of the month, under an air and artillery bombardment viewd by Hitler himself. Thorn fell a few days later. On October the 5th, Hitler viewed a victory parade in Warsaw. The Russians were rounding up military POWs and political prisoners by the boxcar. Heydrich's SS Einsatzkommandos, who had followed the German Army into Poland continued the slaughter of priests, intellectuals, political leaders and Jews they had started right after the invasion [German Army units also participated in war crimes]. For Poland, a long night of repression and subjugation had begun.

And the short term result? The Germans annexed the Corridor, Danzig and western Poland. A southern 'rump', became the 'Government General' under Hans Frank, and German Poland became the home to the death camps of the Holocaust. The Polish government eventually fled to London, still an ally. That alliance was eventually betrayed by the British, after the discovery of some 4,000 corpses of Polish officers at Katyn Forest, near Smolensk, by the Germans. They had been shot by Stain's NKVD. When the Poles demanded a neutral investigation, the Reds broke relations with them. And Churchill chose Stalin over the Poles. And since, as Nathan Bedford Forrest used to say, "Git thar fustest with the mostest", the Red Army got to Poland first [and Allowed the Germans to liquidate the Home Army for them Poland, whose freedom and independence were the casus belli for the Franco-British declaration of war on the Reich, disappeared behind the Iron Curtain until the dissolution of the Soviet Empire.

It was the third great battle in the Western Theater of the Civil War. It was also the bloodiest. And when it was over, the North had suffered a tactical defeat, and Braxton Bragg snatched defeat from the jaws of victory.

By early September, 1863, William Rosecrans had, largely by clever maneuver, levered the Confederate forces out of Chattanooga, Tennessee. He then gathered his army, some 60,000 strong, and began a new series of maneuvers to force Bragg's Army of Tennessee, out of the southern portion of the state. But Bragg wanted Chattanooga back, and calling for reinforcements, he began marching north to do just that.

Braxton Bragg had been a legend in the pre-war U.S. Army. He was acerbic, rigid, and thick headed. One classic Bragg story involved the occasion when, as the supply officer of an Army post temporarily in command of the post while the C.O was on leave, he submitted a requisition to himself, and denied the request. But his early Civil War showed promise. Assigned to Florida, he performed well, and was very good at training troops, sort of liker a George B. McClellan in gray. But like McClellan, he would prove to be a failure on the battlefield of epic proportions.

Bragg was eventually assigned command of the South's principal army in the West, the Army of Tennessee. The original commander, Albert Sidney Johnson, was killed at Shilo [or Pittsburg Landing, take your pick]. His deputy, Gen. Pierre Beauregard [the officer who fired on Sumter] was hated by Jefferson Davis with a passion, so he was removed. Bragg, on the other hand, was a favorite, so he got the command.

The battle started on September 18th, when elements of Bragg's Army, both infantry and cavalry, made contact with Rosecrans' men near Chickamauga Creek. By the next day, both armies were heavily engaged.

At first Bragg's attacks on the 19th bore little fruit. Then two things occurred that changed everything at almost the same instant on the 20th. First, Rosecrans was erroneously informed that there was a gap in his line, so he ordered a troop shift to cover it. At almost exactly the same moment as the troops began shifting, the lead elements of the First Corps, Army of Northern Virginia [LTG James Longstreet] marched straight from the railheads where they were unloading straight into battle, and straight into the now open gap vacated by the Federal troops that had been moved by Rosecrans order.

The rebels immediately blew through the Union lines, and drove deep. Rosecrans and a third of his Army were swept from the filed, and fell back toward Chattanooga. But then Longstreet's men [he was commanding the left of Bragg's Army, Leonidas Polk the right], ran into George Thomas, his division, and hastily organized refugees from the wreckage of the field, on a strongly held hill. Thomas held. And Longstreet, calling for reinforcements, now became acquainted with Bragg the Equivacator. No reinforcements came. Longstreet was unable to strategically take advantage of his tactical victory. Bragg refused to move quickly, despite the advice of Longstreet, Forrest, and his own officers. And by the time he did move, the Union forces in Chattanooga had been reinforced [by among others, George Thomas who had withdrawn from the field in good order on the night of the 20th]. Bragg chose to occupy the high ground around Chattanooga and lay siege to it. An epic tactical victory had been thrown away.

Bragg was eventually driven off the heights by the new Union Commander, U.S Grant. His Army was driven out of Tennessee into Georgia. When it returned, in late 1864, under John Bell Hood, it was again met by the redoubtable George Thomas, "The Rock of Chickamauga", it was virtually annihilated in the battle of Nashville [Thomas was THE only Civil War General to accomplish this feat], fled back to northern Georgia and virtually disbanded [it would reconstitute under Joe Johnston, and finish the war in North Carolina - a long way from the glimmer of glory of Chickamauga.

Two of the interesting features of the Nuremburg Trials were: Soviet Judges on the Tribunal, and the Court's refusal to countenance the admission, as a defense exhibit, of the Secret Protocols of the 1939 Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. Both relate to the first potential charge faced by the many of the defendants [including Goering, Keitel, Raeder, Jodl, etc.] - Plotting to wage aggressive warfare. And the Court's action was understandable from the point of view that one of the parties judging, the Soviets were, by any reasonable standard, guilty of the offense for which the Germans faced execution. [In fairness to the Russians, the British kept any reference to their plans for Norway out of the trial, when Raeder was indicted for the same planning].

This messy conundrum originated, of course, in August, 1939, when as a run up to Case White, and to keep his generals quiet, Adolf Hitler, first through backchannels, and then through written correspondence, sought to improve relations with his ideological prime enemy, Communist Russia. And, surprisingly, the Soviets were receptive [actually, they were dickering with both sides].

Britain and France were trying to get Stalin to ally with them and Poland, in the hope of backing Hitler off from offensive action against Poland. the major problem was the Poles, who refused to countenance Soviet troops on their soil. [In 1938, the Poles had refused to a collective security arrangement for Czechoslavakia which  provided for the passage of Soviet troops through Poland to that country]. Still, a middle to low level delegation of British and French diplomats and military officers traveled by steamship to the U.S.S.R where they engaged in dilatory and non-specific negotiations with Klim Voroshilov, the Soviet Defense Minister, a hack of the first water, and Stalin's toad.

At the same time [in less than a week], Hitler had sent his foreign minister, Joachim von Ribbentropp, by plane to Moscow for talks with the foreign minister, Molotov, and eventually, with Stalin himself. The upshot was the Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, with both sides pledging cooperation, better trade relations, and all the usual. But as with any agreement, the devil is in the details, and the details in this pact were the Devil himself.

The pact had a list of 'Secret Protocols', along with a map, marked up and initialed, which divided Eastern Europe between the Germans and the Soviets. Poland was to be divided between Germany and the U.S.S.R.. The Baltic States, after some further talks, went to Stalin. The Polish plum was now ripe for the picking.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. While the Poles resisted as best they could [see the Battle of the Bzura River], they were simply overwhelmed. the Germans executed a concentric double envelopment, with the inner pincers closing on Warsaw, and the outer pincers closing near the Polish-Soviet border at Brest -Litovsk.

At first the Poles fell back toward the eastern part of the country where they could, inasmuch as that was where their reserves were located. then, on September 17th, Soviet units surged over the border at multiple points, heading west, ostensibly to protect 'western Ukrainians'. The Poles, having no chance, collapsed in short order. Those that could, along with the Polish government, fled to neutral Romania, and from there on to Britain. Those that couldn't flee were captured, either by the Germans, or the Russians. German units, like Guderian's XIXth Corps, which had taken Brest-Litovsk, were forced to withdraw to the west, in conformance with the new demarcation line. Poland surrendered by the end of the month.

The Soviets immediately began shipping Poles east, including some 22,000 captured officers. most of them were killed by the NKVD in the spring of 1940. The Poles discovered by the Germans at Katyn in 1943 were some of these 'irredeemable anti-Soviets'. They also Sovietized their zone, and imprisoned or shot thousands. they also brought to the new border, by NKVD train, hundreds of German Communists and Jewish refugees they turned over to the Gestapo.

And it all happened in 1939. And never saw the light of day at the Nuremburg Trials.

By the beginning of October, 1941, the German Army was laying siege to Leningrad, having sealed off the overland route to the city by taking Schusselburg, and was driving, in the south, on Rostov on the Don, after taking Kharkov and Kursk in the aftermath of the Kiev encirclement.

Guderian's newly re-christened Second Panzerarmee had re-deployed to the southern wing of Army Group Center after their march south. And the question was, "What next"? The answer was the answer to the prayers of Field Marshal Brauchitsch, C in C of the German Army, and his Chief of Staff, Colonel General Fritz Halder - Operation Typhun [Typhoon] - an all out attack on Moscow.

It had been an article of faith for the pair that Moscow was the Holy Grail of the entire German invasion of the U.S.S.R. Despite Hitler's directives that the Donbass, Ukraine and Leningrad district were to be Barbarossa's primary objectives, they had configured the attacking forces to the greatest force facing the center part of the line - and pointed at Moscow. Both men had vociferously opposed the drive on Kiev  in August, arguing that the Russians had almost no reserves before Moscow, and conversely that a drive on Moscow would draw in the Soviet reserves to defend the capitol. Both ignored the three hundred mile open right flank of Army Group Center, and the fact that Army Group South had largely been  unable to force the Dnieper, nor take Kiev.

But now, Hitler slipped their leash, and Fedor von Bock was ordered to take Moscow. And for the operation, the number of units under his command increased. In addition to Fourth Army, Ninth Army, Second Army, Second Panzer Army and Third Panzer Army, he got Fourth Panzer Army [from Army Group North]. But tellingly, he had less troops and tanks from when he had started the campaign in June. In the three months since Barbarossa opened, the Germans had suffered horrific losses, on a scale they had not seen before in the war. Plus, equipment was wearing, or was already worn out, the supply system was in chaos, and winter was coming. What the Germans DID have [still] was operational and tactical superiority. And they used that initially to devastating advantage.

TYPHUN opened with a thunderclap, the twin encirclements of  Vyazma and Bryansk. With Guderian on the south and Hoth and Hoeppner on the north, the Germans bagged over half a million prisoners. Panic seized Moscow. There was looting on a grand scale. On October 16th, the Soviet government [but not Stalin] and the diplomatic corps moved to Kubiyshev. Martial law was declared, and the NKVD secured the city. And the Red Army scraped up whatever reserves to plug the holes.

As the Germans advanced east, the Rasputyiva [rains] hit. The German advance slowed to a crawl, then largely stopped. Supplies, which had a difficult time reaching the front in the best of circumstances, had even more trouble because of the mud. Eventually, by late October, the Germans waited, hoping for frost, and hard ground to maneuver on. They had forgotten about being careful what you wish for. But the temperature dropped, the ground froze, and the advance resumed.

On November 7th, Stalin took the parade celebrating the anniversary of the Revolution from atop the Kremlin. The troops marched straight  from the parade to the front. But by November 7th, the Germans were in deep trouble. And it was getting deeper. Neithefr Hitler, nor his generals had thought that BARBAROSSA would take more than 8 weeks. Supply, often more of an afterthought than part of planning in the German Army, had made no provision for winter uniforms for the troops. Among other things, that meant the Germans were going into combat in hobnailed jackboots. The leather didn't block the cold. The hobnails conducted it. Aside from their service caps, the only headgear the troops had were their helmets. Their steel helmets. Again, a cold conductor. And it was VERY cold. And getting colder. It would eventually fall to in excess of -20 degrees centigrade. Additionally, the Germans failed to send hydraulic fluid, grease and motor oil that could perform in the low temperatures. As a result, fires had to be lit under tank engines to turn them over. German machineguns seized up [as did the artillery. Luftwaffe aircraft were largely unable to get off the ground. And yet the Germans drove on. Until they hit the wall.

The first sign of trouble was Guderian's failure to take Tula [which was expected to be the opening move of sweep to Moscow's rear from the southeast. Reinhardt [replacing a newly promoted Hermann Hoth] and Hoeppner, drove on Moscow from the northwest. And were halted. An engineer unit of the Fourth Army got close enough [some 12 miles] from Moscow to see the Kremlin. And then that other orphan of the German General Staff, poor intelligence, kicked in. Two fresh armies, from the Far East, composed of Siberians, and others equipped and trained for winter fighting, opened an offensive in front of Moscow on December 5th. The Germans never knew they were there until they attacked. They were there because Stalin's ace spy [in Tokyo], Richard Sorge was able to tell him the Japanese were NOT going to join in the war on the U.S.S.R.  The German attack, already stalled, fell apart.

Army Group Center began falling back on December 6th. Army Group South had already withdrawn from Rostov to the Mius at the end of November. Hitler ordered 'no retreat'. That order, at that time, in that situation probably saved the German Army [Soviet-read Stalin's-ineptitude helped]. But it set a bad precedent for the future. On December 11th, Hitler declared war on the United States. With three more weeks, he had relieved all three Army Group Commanders, and Guderian and Hoeppner. Brauchitsch retired on health grounds, and Hitler made himself Commander in Chief of the German Army. The Wehrmacht's myth of invincibility was shattered. Moscow was saved. And the Typhoon had blown itself out as a ragged little zephyr.

Thank you! Love reading these.

Wow....once again didn't know any of this. Thank you!

If ever there was a case where a plan got a life of it's own, it occurred in September, 1944, in the Netherlands. The plan was MARKET-GARDEN. It's creator was Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery of El Alamein fame, commander of the 21st Allied Army Group, egotist and perpetual thorn in the side of one Dwight David Eisenhower, Commanding General of the Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe.

Montgomery had just come off one of his usuals, a victory that really wasn't. Her had finally captured Antwerp from the Germans, a port facility desperately needed by the Allies to shorten their overlong supply lines. The Allies were still bringing their supplies in from Normandy and Cherbourg, in large part because the Germans either still held the channel ports the Allies needed, or had wrecked them to a fare the well before surrendering them. But having taken Antwerp, Monty forgot to drive the German 15th Army out of the Schedlt estuary, which was the ONLY way into Antwerp from the sea. So, no gain. to say Ike was displeased, would be putting it mildly. On top of that Monty was again pushing for: [a] being named 'Ground Commander' of all Allied forces in Northwestern Europe, and Eisenhower's agreement to Monty's pet 'narrow thrust' scheme [with Monty doing the thrusting, at the logistical and reinforcement expense of the U.S Army Groups].

Montgomery proposed a very aggressive and daring operation [which used in a sentence with Monty's name constitutes an oxymoron]. He proposed laying an airborne carpet of airborne troops from the U.S 82d and 101st airborne divisions, the Polish Parachute brigade and the 1st British Airborne, to seize a series of bridges from the Dutch border to the German border, with British  XXX Corps to drive overland over the seized bridges to debauch into the German plain north of the Ruhr. The plan was hatched in a wildly short period of time, without any input from the Dutch [who knew the country], nor anyone else.

And then the stars came into alignment. Ike said 'Yes' [he had an airborne army laying around that had undertaken no major operations since D-Day. The airborne army commander, Berenton was for it, and so was his British deputy, Gen. 'Boy" Browning, who was salivating for the opportunity to command an airborne Corps in an operation.

But there were flies in the ointment. There weren't enough planes and gliders to drop all the paratroopers in one go. The unit tasked with taking the furthest bridge, Arnheim, was to be dropped several miles from the objective. The German Army,which had been disintegrating in August, had pulled itself together by the middle of September. And then there were those pesky intelligence reports fro the Dutch underground about Arnheim, i.e, the reports of German armor, SS armor in the vicinity of the city. Those reports were accompanied by photos. But, by now, the plan had a life of its own. Monty's single thrust depended on the plan. Browning's desire to lead a Corps in combat depended on the plan. So the intelligence and the photos were discounted or disregarded. MARKET-GARDEN was a go..

The SS units near Arnheim were the remnants of the II SS Panzer Corps, comprising the 9th SS Panzer Division HOHENSTAUFFEN, and THE 10TH SS Panzer Division FRUNDSBURG, commanded by SS Obergruppenfuehrer [LTG] Wilhelm 'Willi' Bittrich. Bittrich had served in both the German Army, and the Luftwaffe before joining the SS. A skilled general, he was not one of Himmler's favorites. He allowed chaplains with his units. He vociferously denounced the punishment of Army General Erich Hoeppner [Bittrich's former commander on the Eastern front, and a participant in the 2oth of July plot] so loudly that Himmler ordered him back to Berlin for 'consultation'. But Bittrich's superiors, including the commander of Army Group B, Field Marshal Model, refused to send Bittrich back, citing military necessity. they probably saved his life.

Model's headquarters was also near Arnheim [unknown to the Allies]. and when paratroopers began raining down from the sky. Model thought they were coming for him. And then when presented with a complete set of plans, found on a dead British officer in a crashed glider, he refused to believe them. But Bittrich, assuming the bridges were the objective put the 9th SS in motion for Eindhoven and Nijmegen, and the 10th to Arnheim.

The U.S airborne landings were much closer to their bridges, and despite heavy fighting at several, the bridges were secure. At Eindoven, the Americans crossed the river in canvas boats  and assaulted from both sides. At Nijmegen, the Germans' explosive charges failed to 'blow'. But at Arnheim, only one battalion, commanded by LTC John Frost reached the bridge.On top of that the  Divisional commander, MG Urquart started off at the drop zone with radios that failed to operate. He then proceeded into town and was trapped [temporarily], by the oncoming Germans.

In addition to the units of the 10th SS, ann SS detachment, Kampfgruppe Kraft showed up, as did several Army units. In addition to heavily armed infantry, the British, with no anti-tank capability, found themselves facing German armored vehicles [half-tracks, jadgpanzers, assault guns and tanks], but eventually TIGER Is.

Frost, holding one end of the bridge, held off the reconnaissance battalion of the SS Division, but found himself cut off from the rest of his division, eventually surrounded, and eventually, out of ammo.

The airborne was supposed to hold the bridge for two days. They held over three. But the GARDEN end of MARKET-GARDEN, the ground attack of XXX Corps [Horrocks, GC] got nowhere fast. First they were advancing up what was basically one road in inhospitable terrain. Second, Von Zangen's 15th Army [or what was left of it], having been driven ut of the Scheldt Estuary was no sitting on Horrocks' left flank. And every chance they got, which was frequently, they ambushed the column [spearheaded by the Irish Guards], and cut the road behind the advance. It slowed to a crawl. Finally, just short of Arnheim, Horrocks ran into a blocking force of battalion strength TIGER tanks. GARDEN was done.

All that was left to do was get the remnants of the British 1st Airborne back over the river. The Polish airborne brigade, originally earmarked for a second drop into Arnheim [it was cancelled when the Allies realized the supplies they were dropping in were dropping to the Germans], landed on the south side, crossed into Arnheim, and evacuated what they could. Market-Garden had failed. The British alone lost over 7,000 men, killed or captured. The Dutch, who had celebrated their freedom before it actually occurred suffered the "Hunger Winter" as a result of German retaliation [one of the victims was Audrey Hepburn]. The Allies liberated South Holland, but the Germans held the rest.

MARKET-GARDEN was the result of hubris, slipshod and overly quick planning, and a refusal to consider anything that might, to a rational mind, scream "STOP".  

As the South's hopes dwindled in the Summer and early Fall of 1864, General Stirling Price led a raid into Missouri with Southern militia and various bands of 'Bushwhackers' [southern guerillas]. Some of these rode with and scouted for price, among them George Todd, Quantrill's successor, and his band. Others operated independently, seeking to disrupt Union supply and communications. One such band was led by William 'Bloody Bill' Anderson.

Anderson had been involved in the Border War between Missouri and Kansas BEFORE the Civil War. His father had been killed by Unionists. When the war broke out, Anderson was an early and dedicated "Bushwhacker". He rose steadily through the ranks, and by 1863, he was one of Quantrill's lieutenants, leading his own band of cutthroats. Anderson was at Lawrence, and participated fully in the slaughter of the 162 men and boys murdered there. For Anderson, it was personal. His sister had died as a captive in a hotel collapse while being held by the Union. The event may have caused a psychotic break, because from Lawrence onward, Anderson earned the sobriquet, "Bloody Bill". He not only killed people, he mutilated ther corpses. His horse's bridle was festooned with human scalps. Even other guerillas steered clear of him if they could help it. In the winter of 1864, Anderson's depredations in Texas caused the Confederate authorities to order Quantrill to arrest he and his men. Facing Quantrill down, Anderson rode away. While they cooperated on occasion in 1864, Anderson never served under him again.

On September, 27th, 1864, Anderson and 80 men rode into Centralia, Missouri, with the avowed purpose of wrecking the railroad. They first raided the town, then blocked the tracks. Anderson was in a foul mood. His operations that summer had mostly failed, with losses he could not sustain over the long haul. And then the train showed up.

The Engineer , seeing many of Anderson's men in blue jackets, thought they were Union troops until it was too late. The train stopped, the raiders boarded it. Among the almost 200 passengers were 24 Union soldiers going on leave from Sherman's Army. They were separated from the other passengers, made to strip off their uniforms, and kneel on the tracks. A query from Anderson for an officer led to a sergeant offering himself up for what he assumed was his death. He was wrong. Anderson was looking for a prisoner of some import to swap for one of his men. The sergeant was that prisoner [he escaped ten days later].

But the other 23 were not so fortunate. As they knelt on the tracks, at least two of the rebels walked down the line , shooting them individually. One of the killers was identified as Little Archie Clements. The other was reputedly a 16 year old who had recently joined the band. His name was Jesse Woodson James.

After the murders, Anderson and his men destroyed the depot, set the train on fire, and sent it down the line, and left. Within an hour, a force of some 100 mounted Federal infantry arrived in Centralia, then struck Anderson's trail, and rode off in hot pursuit. Anderson was waiting for them down the road, with reinforcements consisting of Quantrill's band, and those of several other guerilla chieftains. Armed with single shot muzzle loaders, the Union troops never had a chance. After their single volley, they were ridden down in a charge by the guerillas, who favored the revolver, and carried as many as eight each. According to Frank James later, his brother killed the Union commander. Almost all the Union troops were killed before the Rebels moved off. Several, at least, had been scalped.

Centralia was, for want of a more appropriate phrase, Anderson's high water mark. With two moths, he was dead, killed in an ambush by Union troops, his head mounted on a pole. Little Archie Clements was killed riding into his home town, which was swarming with Union troops near the end of the war [he served as the model for Pitt Mackeson in Ang Lee's "Ride With the Devil]. Jesse James went on to a life of crime that ended in 1881. In 1869, during a bank robbery, he murdered one of the clerks because he thought he was the man who had killed Anderson.

By 9 AD, the Romans had carved a potential new province on the east bank of the Rhine. In fact they had established a presence up to the Elbe River. They did so in the usual way - military conquest and diplomatic alliances with some of the local tribes and leaders. But, according to the archaeologists, their presence and success was much greater than had been thought, with modern excavations revealing greater numbers of Romanized German settlements, and a more extensive road network than had previously been thought. Augustus Caesar had every reason to be pleased. And then it all changed, almost in a proverbial day.

The man appointed to govern Germany was one Marcus Quinctilius Varus. He was no newbie to the game, having previously held governorships, and praetorships elsewhere. Admired by the Senate for his perceived toughness, Varus was vain, greedy, and not  particularly  known for his military abilities. He was known for squeezing the last sesterce out of subject peoples with a vengeance, and, perhaps, a more than occasional overage for himself [in addition to bribes, etc.].

In the autumn of 9 AD, Varus prepared to move his military force toward the Rhine and winter encampment. His army consisted of three legions, the XVIIth, XVIIIth, AND XIXth, plus German auxiliary cavalry commanded by one Arminius [or Hermann], a Cherusci noble, who had lived as a child in Rome as a hostage, grown to manhood there, been awarded Roman citizenship, and membership in the Equestrian order. He had also served with the Roman Army in Pannonia. He was a man Varus trusted, and whose counsel Varus apparently listened to. Big mistake.

As Varus prepared to move west, Arminius brought word of a tribal rebellion to the northwest. Either on his own, or at Arminius' suggestion, Varus decided to deal with the matter on the way to winter quarters, despite warnings from Arminius' father-in-law, Segestes, that Arminius was the leader in an inter-tribal plot against Rome, and that he was going to betray the Romans. With Arminius' cavalry leading the three legions marched off.

But it was not a military formation of three legion. Since it was an operation undertaken on the way to winter quarters, all the Army's supply wagons, and their camp followers were included in the line of march, which spread out over several miles. And then the Romans reached the Teutoburg Forest. Heavily wooded, damp, with bad weather on them, the Romans were restricted to a single track. To make any progress they marched in loose columns. Significantly they were not formed up in their unit formations. Arminius, having fought for the Romans, and understanding their tactics, had chosen his ground well. Fully aware his men could not stand up to the Romans in open battle in open terrain, he made the terrain his ally. And galloping away on reconnaissance, he and his men were never seen by the Romans again.

The attack started at the rear of the column. Using thrown spears, axes, and arrows, German tribesmen first softened up, then began to charge into, then retreat from the Romans. Unable to form up in their close order formations the Romans [and the civilians with them]took heavy losses. The attacks then moved up the line of march, the Germans content to attack the weakest portions of the line of march. By the end of the first day, trapped in a forest they had no familiarity with [absent the German scouts], and with numerous dead and wounded, the Romans laagered up for the night. They also burned a good deal of the supply column.

The second day went much as the first, although now a cold, heavy, steady rain was added to the mix. On the second night, the Romans built a crude defensive wall out of what remained of their cartage, and placed their wounded within the perimeter. They then launched a night attack in an effort to break out, and continued up the track free, albeit temporarily, of the Germans on their flank.

It all ended on the third day. The Romans emerged from the deep forest onto a strip of open land. to their left was low, swampy ground. To the right, the terrain rose. And on that terrain were crude walls of interwoven branches and uprights dug into the ground. And behind those walls were Germans. Lots of Germans. Roman efforts to assault uphill were failures. By now the troops were too few, and exhausted. And at that point Arminius' forces charged downhill. It was soon over.

The three legions were largely annihilated [the survivors could be counted on the fingers of some four hands]. Varus killed himself [bad form for a Roman general on an active battlefield. Centurions and officers captured alive were sacrificed in a grove near the battle site. Roman bodies were decapitated and left strewn along the ground [skulls were found by a Roman punitive expedition nailed to trees three years later]. The Germans then followed up by destroying the Roman presence east of the Rhine, wiping out Roman vexillations, destroying Roman forts and towns. Roman occupation of Germany was over.

That is not to say the Romans never came back. They did, on three separate occasions. But those occasions were punishment raids, against the tribes that had participated in Arminius' conspiracy. And they were very successful. Aside from annihilating several of the tribes involved, the Romans recovered two of the three legionary eagles lost in the battle [the third was recovered 32 years later], and captured Arminius' wife, who remained a Roman prisoner the rest of her life. They also, on the third expedition, brought Arminius to battle on open ground. His defeat was catastrophic. He was never again to make war with the Romans, choosing instead to war on his fellow Germans. With apparent designs on kinghood over a German confederation, he was eventually murdered by some of his own followers.

It was believed that the Teutoburg massacre hastened the death of the 70 something Augustus Caesar, already in ill health. Augustus let his beard grow for several months, and was reputed to bang his hands on the walls yelling, "Quinctilius Varus! Give me back my legions!".

The Romans lost in excess of 15,000 troops at Teutoburg [the number of camp followers is unknown]. That constituted 10% of the entire Roman Army. The three legions were never re-constituted [one was, temporarily by Nero, but disbanded by Vespasian]. And the Germans won their freedom, but remained largely cut off from the benefits of civilization for the rest of the roman Empire's time in the West.

   

It was, by any standard, a brilliant and highly successful operation. The first Blitzkrieg of modern times, it forever changed the face of war in the modern era. Along with the capture of Atlanta, it saved Lincoln's presidency. And it did more to break the Confederacy than anything else in 1864.

It began as a result of one Lieutenant William T. Sherman's travels in Georgia and the deep South in the aftermath of the Seminole War. Sherman traveled extensively, mapping the area for his own entertainment [he had finished first in his class at the Point in art]. As he later put it, he knew Georgia better than the Confederates and Georgians did. It came to fruition during the occupation of Atlanta [post 21 SEP 1864]. And it was dictated, in part, by the actions of Sherman's opponent, Confederate General John Bell Hood.

Hood was still in the vicinity of Atlanta, after it fell to Sherman. Since Hood felt compelled to do something [read 'anything'] after shooting his own army to pieces in five separate battles in front of Atlanta earlier, and since he was in no position to do anything offensively, he decided to sideslip the Union Army, fall on its supply line, and cause Sherman to abandon Atlanta and follow him around [eventually to Tennessee]. That was the plan. the result was something entirely different.

With Hood having voluntarily gotten out of his way, Georgia lay basically undefended [except for some small units and Wheeler's cavalry] before him, Sherman conceived of his March to the Sea. First, he pared down his Army. He sent Gen. George Thomas, with@ 60,000 men to deal with Hood [at the battle of Nashville, Thomas would destroy Hood's Army, the only Civil War general to accomplish such a feat]. Sherman then pared down the rest of his troops, taking only the fittest, some 62,000 with him. Using census maps and other data, Sherman plotted his march to travel through the most agriculturally rich counties, as well as those areas with the most important infrastructure [read railroads, factories, mills, etc. Sherman then divided his army into two columns, and set out to make "Georgia howl". His orders, and intent were clear. The Army was to either seize, or destroy any material and contraband useful to the Southern war effort. Foragers, called 'bummers' would be sent out each day by individual brigades to seize any foodstuffs available. The Army was to live off the land. Railroads were to be torn up and the rails burned on bonfires, and then bent around poles , the so-called Sherman's neckties [for an example see the destruction of Newton's Station in the film , "The Horse Soldiers"]. Cotton was to be burned, as well as any fodder or food usable to the Confederate forces. Civilians were not to be molested.

Sherman then moved in such a way as to have two potential objectives at each stage of the March, causing the Confederates to either stretch their already overstretched forces to cover both, or to leave one uncovered. And except for one 'battle' early on, against some Georgia militia who suffered heavy losses, the March was accompanied by cavalry skirmishing, but little else.

For most of the March, Sherman 'disappeared' from the screen as it were. Although the Richmond government was aware , to some degree, where he was, and what he was doing, Lincoln was almost in the dark about where the western Army was.

And then, around December 10th, Sherman appeared outside Savannah. Linking up with the Union Navy, he quickly closed on the city. The 10,000 defenders under Frank Cheatham fled. The city was surrendered by the Mayor, and Sherman, by telegram, presented it to Lincoln as a Christmas present, and "fairly won". By Spring, Sherman marched north into South Carolina, birthplace of Secession, followed by his invasion of North Carolina, where he was when the war ended.

Sherman's March largely broke the South will to fight. Aside from the damage he inflicted [some 300 miles of railroad torn up, devastation to food crops, factories, etc.], Sherman showed the civilian population that Union forces could go anywhere they wanted, with impunity, in the Deep South, and that the Confederacy couldn't protect them. Desertions by Georgian, and later Carolinian troops from Lee's Army of Northern Virginia increased significantly. Lee himself now faced Grant with Sherman coming up in his rear.

The March to the Sea was, with Vicksburg, one of the two most brilliant and significant campaigns of the Civil War. The March to the Sea was the first campaign of what might be termed 'modern war'. It marked Sherman as one of, if not the, most brilliant generals in American history.

Thank you PzLdr!

It's origins are Celtic. It started as Samhain [pronounced Sah-wain], the Celtic night of the Dead, and it noted what was then the Celtic New Year, which took place at harvest time.

At that time, the Celts would drive their livestock herds into the village, to determine which were healthy enough for next season, and which would be culled, for an end year feast [or preserved and prepared for the winter]. The animals would be driven between two bonfires at the village gate, to prevent any demons hiding among them from getting into the village [interestingly, the Mongols had a similar custom, and required anyone entering the Ger of the Great Khan to walk between two fires].

But Samhain was also the time the Celts thought the fabric between this life and the afterlife, and the spirit world was at its thinnest. they believed their ancestors could, and would return to visit their families. So like the Mexicans on the Day of the Dead, they would put out food for the ancestors during the feast. And if they had to go abroad themselves, they would disguise themselves to fool demons and evil spirits that had also crossed over that night.

The early Catholic Church used co-option as a tool to win converts, and make it easier for their adaption into the Faith. Thus, Christ's birthday was celebrated in December, instead of the probable month of his birth [either April or May], in order to coopt Roman Saturnalia and the Pagan celebration of the Winter Solstice. And the Church targeted Samhain with two observances of its own, one on November 1st, making October 31st [the settled date for Samhain, "All Hallows Eve", eventually, Halloween. But Halloween refused to "die", and is still going strong [second only to Christmas]. And it is the last Pagan holiday celebrated , in any sense, today [although there seems to be some obscure and/or forgotten relationship between the Hare that represented the Celtic Goddess of fertility and the Easter Bunny].

And the Samhain customs? The bonfires became Jack 'O Lanterns, lit to protect the home from demons. The plates for the ancestors became the 'treats' of 'Trick or Treat'. And the disguises used to protect one abroad on Samhain from the spirits walking the Earth morphed into the Halloween costumes we see today. So, 'HAPPY SAMHAIN'!

'HAPPY SAMHAIN'!...............Thank you PzLdr! 

Ever wonder why men's suit jackets/sport coats have three or four buttons on the sleeves? That fashion statement originated with Frederick the Great, who had buttons sewed on the sleeves of his men's uniforms. to prevent them from wiping their noses on their sleeves.

Ever wonder where the military salute comes from? During the era of armed knights, if two [or more] met on the road, each would lift his helmet visor to indicate 'friend', or at least, non-enemy.

Ever wonder where the forregeure [the cord with metal tip worn on the shoulder of some uniforms] comes from? It originated with a band of mercenaries [Croats], and was originally a piece of rope with a nail - to be used for the wearer's hanging if he was captured [badasses]

Ever wonder where standard European [non-Russian] railroad gage comes from? The width apart of Roman chariot wheels.

Where does the word 'berserk' come from? The Vikings had a bunch of guys who revved up for battle with booze, magic mushrooms and God knows what else. They eschewed armor, bit their shield rims and worked themselves into a frenzy before attacking. They DID wear animal skins, a favorite being bear skin shirts, or 'ber sarks', and they were called Berserkers as a result.

The handshake originated, in part, to show one wasn't holding a knife, when meeting [BIG advantage to lefties]

Thank you PzLdr! 

It was the day to commemorate the "11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month", the time when the armistice on the Western Front ended military hostilities in World War I, "the War to end all Wars". It was called 'Armistice Day'. And yet, earlier in the year [1918], the issue of who would triumph on the Western Front ,the Allies [France, Great Britain and the United States], or Imperial Germany, was up for grabs.

The Germans had knocked Russia out of the War. Aside from the major land grabs and other terms acceded to at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk by the new Soviet government, the German victory freed up well over 100 divisions for service in the West. Masterminded by Erich Ludendorff, the Germans undertook a series of offensives in the West in the Spring of 1918. Although uncoordinated, they succeeded, by the use of new 'storm trooper tactics', in once again closing on Paris. They, once again, failed [lack of transport to take strategic advantage of tactical breakthroughs paid a large part, a situation the Germans would note, and remedy some 20 years later].

The German Army had shot its bolt. And in a series of counteroffensives, the Allies drove the Germans back, and destroyed not only large numbers of troops, but Germany's position in the West. The Armistice resulted.

But the victory carried the seeds of future defeat with it. Under the Armistice, the German Army was required to withdraw from France and Belgium in roughly a month. For the German General Staff, a piece of cake. BUT, for the German civilian population, the result was a puzzlement. Due to press censorship during the War, they were generally unaware how badly their Army had fared in 1918. And then the Army, in good order, marched back over the border as if on parade. and except for the Rhineland, and Alsace-Lorraine, no substantial number of Allied troops appeared in Germany. Yet the Kaiser was gone [to Holland, after abdication], they had a Social Democratic government, and their army and navy were seriously reduced in both size and weaponry. So there was an air of unreality about it all. That air of unreality came to a screeching halt with the Versailles Treaty that ended the war. the Germans found themselves stripped of their colonies, saddled with the sole guilt for starting the War, and back breaking war debts. And they were still subject to the British blockade.

As Marshal Foch observed, the Versailles Treaty [and by implication, the Armistice] would not end war. It would merely  buy 20 years of peace.

In due time, other wars beyond the "War to End all Wars" would be fought, starting with its child, World War II. And eventually, Armistice Day [a name still in use in my childhood], was transformed into "Veterans' Day", to honor all Veterans of all America's. But it started on November 11th, 1918, at 11:00 A.M. in France and Belgium.

To all my fellow vets, "Happy Veterans' Day".

On November 15th, 1891, future GENERALFELDMARSCHALL of the German Army, Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel is born in Wurtemburg, Swabia. Rommel, initially a sickly child, becomes an avid skier and bicyclist, and develops into a healthy, well conditioned child. At school, Rommel shows an aptitude for mathematics and drawing. He also likes to did-assemble machinery and re-build it. Rommel wants to work for Zeppelin, developing dirigibles when he gets older, but it is his father, a school teacher, who steers him into a career in the Wurtemburg Army. Rommel joins an infantry regiment as a Fahrenjunker [ensign], and after the appropriate probationary period is commissioned as a second lieutenant.

When World War I breaks out, Rommel's regiment is posted to the Western Front, where he begins to display the audacity, coolheadedness and bravery that will mark his career. He is wounded twice. He is then posted to the only mountain battalion in the Wurtemberg Army. He will never serve on the Western Front again.

In 1916, Rommel participates in the conquest of Romania, fighting in an Imperial German mountain Corps. By now a Captain, with both the Iron Cross 1st and 2d class, Rommel is functioning as the field commander of units as large, or larger, than a battalion. He is also perfecting small scale infantry tactics that presage the Blitzkrieg tactics of WW II, and, indeed, the Storm Trooper tactics of 1918, using the firepower of his machine gun section and mortars to open holes in enemy lines to allow penetration of, and rapid expansion through, the enemy lines.

Rommel reaches the pinnacle of his World War I achievements at the Battle of Caporetto, in Italy. Leading his battalion, he breaks through the Italian lines, and drives on to capture Mount Matajur, the key to the Italian defensive line. He also captures some nine generals, and 9,000 Italian prisoners. The Italians are driven back to the Isonzo, and require re-inforcement from the French and British. For his exploits, Rommel is awarded the POUR LE MERITE, the "Blue Max". He spends the last year of the war on staff duty, which he dislikes, immensely.

Rommel is retained in the 100,000 man army the Germans are allowed under the Versailles Treaty. He commands a company for almost a decade, the commands the ski battalion at Goslar. While there he clashes with the SS over whether or not a file of SS troops will march in front of his battalion in a review by Hitler. Rommel threatens not to allow his troops to march if the SS troops are paraded in front of them. the Nazis back down. Rommel loses one [with Baldur von Schirach], when as military advisor to the Hitler Jugend, Rommel complains about the over-emphasis the HJ is putting on military training. He is relieved of the duty.

Rommel becomes a much beloved instructor at the Infantry School, and later the War Academy in Danzig. He uses his WW I experiences to illustrate the lessons for the students, eventually writing a book, INFANTERIE GREIFT AN ["On Infantry Attacks"] based on those experiences.

Hitler reads the book, and is suitably impressed. Rommel winds up commanding the FUEHRERBEGLEITBATTALION [Hitler's Army security battalion] for the Anschluss, the annexation of Czechoslavakia, and the invasion of Poland. At the conclusion of that campaign, Hitler offers Rommel, now a major general, any field command he wants. Rommel asks for a Panzer Division, and is given the 7th. He will blaze across France, earning 7th Panzer the nickname "Ghost Division" because neither friend nor foe knew where it was because of the speed of its advance. Within a year the sands of North Africa, and glory beckoned. And it all began in Germany, on November 15th, 1891.

Thank you PzLdr!

November 9th became an important day in the history calendar of the Third Reich, and all for inter-related reasons, based on the first November 9th of import: November 9th, 1923.

In 1923, Bavaria, in southern Germany, was a hotbed of right wing, and separatist sentiment, based partly on geography, religion, and recent history. Bavaria had, like the rest of the component kingdoms of the German Empire, been hit by the tidal wave of allied victory, the Treaty of Versailles, and popular unrest following Germany's defeat. The Wittelsbach dynasty had abdicated. Experiments with Social Democratic government had been undertaken. Then, a 'red' government, first led by the socialist Kurt Eisner, and then by Bolsheviks from Russia, had been formed. the reaction of the central government, as well as Bavarian rightists had led to Frekorps and some military units marching in. The inevitable atrocities followed, with especially vicious executions carried out by the Reds [the Freikorps were no angels either], leading to the extreme right in Bavaria getting a 'pass' in local politics. Bavaria began to take a more pronounced rightist tinge than the rest of the German homeland.

Bavaria had always been 'different' from Prussia, and most of Northern Germany as well. First, it was predominately Roman Catholic, as was much of southern Germany, while most of northern Germany was Protestant. Second, it had been one of the two major powers in the German homeland prior to the creation of the German Empire, and had, indeed, sided with Napoleon after Prussia defected.

So Bavaria followed the beat of a different drummer. the central government was ignored as much as possible. Talk of Bavarian secession was freely bandied about. Local political leaders thumbed their noses at Berlin's edicts when they felt like it, and the rise of right wing radicalism flourished in Bavaria's political hot house of parties and ideas. Enter Adolf Hitler.

Hitler had served in the war in the west in a Bavarian regiment. And after the war he returned to Bavaria, first to guard duties, and then to infiltrate and observe the myriad right wing political groups springing up like mushrooms in Munich.

One such group, a very small group was the German Workers' Party. Soon Hitler joined it. Soon he was the propaganda chief of the newly named [at his suggestion] "National Socialist German Workers' Party" ['NSDAP', NOT 'Nazi' for short]. Within a short time, he was the party's acknowledged leader, and from 1919 to 1923 he he led his party to substantial growth and influence in the Volkisch right wing circles in Bavaria. But it was still Bavaria. and by 1923, the faithful [and Hitler] were itching for action. And inspired by Mussolini's 'March on Rome', the idea took place on the Bavarian right that a march on Berlin should be undertaken, with the cooperation of the Bavarian government or without, and the Weimar Republic overthrown.

The action began on November 8th, when Hitler and some of his men marched into the Burgerbrauer Keller, where the principals of the Bavarian government and military were having a meeting, and took them prisoners. Another Nazi column seized the military school [with inside help]. Then  things fell apart. The officials escaped. The police did not come over to the Putschists. And on November 9th, those police met the column of Nazis marching on the center of Munich. Shots were exchanged. Hitler was dragged down by a comrade with whom his arm was linked dislocating his shoulder. Goering suffered a severe wound to the groin. The NSDAP broke and fled. Over the following weeks and months, most were captured. Several, led by Hitler received [lenient] prison sentences. While imprisoned, Hitler wrote "Mein Kampf". Released in 1925, Hitler re-founded his Party, and on January, 1933, was appointed Reichs Chancellor.

By 1935 Hitler had combined the off of chancellor with that of Reichs President [on Hindenburg's death] into the position of Fuehrer. He had also, on November 9th, commemorated the Putsch with a march through Munich, ending at the monument entombing the Nazis killed during the Putsch, at the Ferdenhalle. Later that evening, he gave a speech every year at the Burgerbaurkeller to the Alte Kaempfer [the 'Old fighters'] and high ranking Nazis, which led to:

1938:THE KRISTALLNACHT , or 'Night of Broken Glass'.

By the autumn of 1938, Germany was stepping up its efforts to remove Jews from the Reich. One such effort involved rounding up Jews of Polish citizenship living in the Reich [no matter how long], and forcibly throwing them over the Polish border. A project of Reinhard Heydrich, it was carried out with great brutality, and efficiency. The Poles , however, refused to go along, and left many of the returnees in the no man's land between Germany and Poland, with little or no shelter, in very bad weather. Many of the displaced Jews died from their treatment, and exposure. Two were the parents of Hershel Grenspan, who was living in Paris. Learning of the ir deaths, he went to the German embassy in Paris, asked to speak to an official, and upon being introduced to Ernst von Wrath [ironically an anti-Nazi], fired several bullets into him.

Hitler received news of Von Wrath's death while preparing to speak on November 9th at the Burgerbrauerkeller. He cut the speech short, and left early after talking to Josef Goebbels, the Propaganda minister. Goebbels then whipped the Gauleiters in to a fury, and the word went out: "spontaneous" demonstration were to take place over Von Wrath's death. The SS, police and fire departments were only to guarantee German property and building adjacent to Jewish holdings. The result was massive arson [major synagogues destroyed by arson, as well as homes and buildings, broken windows on stores and homes, assaults and arrests of approximately 30,000 Jewish men, who were interned, briefly in Concentration Camps, and many deaths.  After it was over, and the insurance bills came in , Goering ordered the Jewish community to pay for the damages. And:

HITLER ALMOST ASSASINATED: 9 NOVEMBER 1939:

Georg Elser was a woodworker. He was also a Communist. And an anti-Nazi willing to do something about Hitler. So for mongths in the summer and early autumn of 1939,Elser went to the Burgerbrauerkeller almost every evening. And there he hid, until closing time, when he carefully, and painfully, cut a cavity into one of the columns behind where Hitler usually addressed his comrades on November 9th every year. By November 9th, the the cavity was completed, the facing on the column replaced. The only difference, aside from the cavity itself, was the homemade bomb Elser had placed in the cavity, with the timwer due to detonate the bomb at 9:30 P.M, in the midst of Hitler's specch.

But on November 9th, 1939, Hitler cut his remarks short, due to weather conditions that might impede his return to Berlin, and left by 9:20. He wasn't there when the bomb went off on time, killing something like at least eight, and wounding dozens more. It was the closest Hitler ever came to being killed. If he had been there, he would have died.

Elser himself was captured trying to get over the border to Switzerland. He had the dubious distinction of being one of the few men ever interrogated by 'Gestapo' Mueller, Reinhard Heydrich, AND Heinrich Himmler. Elser was committed to a Concentration Camp [the Nazis were convinced he didn't act alone], until the Spring of 1945, when he was hanged.

So there you have it, three major events in Nazi history, all occurring on November 9th.

The first Indian War in America DID NOT occur in New England. In 1622, the Powhattan [so-called] Indians, led by the now deceased Powhattan, Opechancanaugh, launched a surprise attack on the Jamestown colonies. Opechancanaugh, had been taken , in his youth, to Europe as a prisoner, and developed a hatred that lasted until his death. He returned from England while his brother was paramount chief, and was constrained in his actions by that fact. Once Powhattan died, the planning for the attack picked up speed.

The surprise was foiled, to the degree it was by a friendly Indian warning the colonists. Still, the Indians destroyed almost half of the Jamestown settlements, and killed several hundred settlers.

Opechancanaugh tried again, with much less success in 1644. By now the English were too strong to be dislodeged. Now in his 90s, Opechancanaugh did not survive the campaign.

Two of the dominant Indian tribes on the plains, the Sioux [derived from the Ojibway word for 'snake'] and the Cheyenne originated to the East. The Sioux [Lakota:"Allies"] were originally from the woods of Minnesota where another branch of the tribe, the Santee Sioux [Dakota]remained. The Cheyenne were living a semi -permanent, semi-agricultural life east of the Mississippi, but crossed to the Plains and devolved to hunter-gathering with the coming of the horse.

The Lakota phrase [p/s] for Horse was "Tshunka Wakan" which means 'sacred dog', since dogs had been the principal beast of burden prior to the coming of the horse.

The Sioux arrived in the 'sacred' Black Hills, in 1775, when they drove the Kiowa out of them.

Indians fought among themselves, even as they fought us. The Sioux drove the Crow off the Powder River buffalo range in 1875.

The U.S was fighting two Indian Wars while we fought the Civil War. Little Crow's war, with the Santee Sioux, broke out in Minnesota in 1862. 38 Indians [from a much longer list] were hanged. Lincoln pardoned the rest. One Santee Sioux, Inkapouda, was at the Little Big Horn with a number of Santee warriors [Inkapouda was too old to fight]. The U.S was also at war with the Chirichaua Apaches under Cochise and Mangas Coloradus. Cochise's war would end by treaty in 1872.

The Apache [from the Pueblo word for 'enemy'], originated in Alaska [Athabaskan speakers], and migrated to western Texas, where they lived in fixed villages and lived a semi-agricultural existence. One of their original, and largest bands were the Navajo, who split off, became a separate tribe, and enemies of their cousins. The Apache were driven west to Arizona and New Mexico by the Comanche, and Comanches allied with the Spanish of New Mexico and the Navajo. Except for the Lipan Apache, the Kiowa-Apache, and the Mescalero Apache, the rest of the tribe wound up in western New Mexico, Arizona, and northern Mexico.

The Comanche made a peace with the Southern Cheyenne and Wichita Indians for joint use of the southern Buffalo grounds. The Comanches gave the Cheyenne, allegedly, 100,000 horses. The Comanches were noted horse breeders, but it was a tribe from the northwest, the Nez Perce, who developed a horse breed still bred today, the Appaloosa.

 

Thank you again.....I knew a couple of things in this last one.....not the rest of it....i really enjoy history...thank you PzLdr

NAMES:

Indian Tribes seldom were called by their names for themselves. Usually, their name for themselves meant "The People", or "The Real People" [as opposed to the folks down the road].Many times the name we knew them by qwas given them by other Indians that thyey terrorized.

Thus while the Apaches called themselves 'Dineh', 'Tinde', 'Inde', depending on the band, they were commonly known as 'Apache', the Zuni word for 'enemy'. The name 'Comanche' derived from the Ute 'Komanza' [p/s], from 'They ride against us'. The Lakota/Dakota' became known to us as 'Sioux', a derivation of the Ojibway/Chippewa word for 'snake' [which was incidentally the sign language word for the Comanche]. The Iroquois were the Haudeoshonee(p/s) [People of the Long House']. Cheyenne called themselves 'Tsissitsa' [p/s].

Various tribes had various names for Whites: Pindolickquoya  [white eyes-Apache], Wasichu [Lakota], Veiho [Spider-Cheyenne] (All p/s].
For individual whites [soldiers]: Nantan Lupan [George Crook], Bad Hand [Ranald McKenzie-maimed during the Civil War], Bear Coat [Nelson Miles], Son of the Morning Star, Panther at Dawn, Yellow Hair [George Custer]

INDIVIDUAL NAMES:

Geronimo's real name was Goyalthe, "He Who Yawns". The most famous War Chief of the Comanche was Quanah [Odor], son of a Comanche War Chief and a white captive. Eventually, after he surrendered, he added his mother's maiden name and became Quanah Parker. Crazy Horse was known as Curly in his youth [he had brownish hair with a slight wave in  it]. His father was named Crazy Horse. When Curly completed his vision quest, his father gave Curly his name and called himself 'Worm'. Many Indians' names reflected their vision quest as a boy: Sitting Bull for one. Others were known by approximate translations of their Indian names [Red Cloud]. Others weren't even close: Metocam [King Philip], Joseph of the Nez Perce. Others had two names, one for themselves and their tribe, one for the Whites: Almost any Apache, except Juh. Santanta of the Kiowa, Bat of the Southern Cheyenne [Roman Nose]

At least two Indians have Hockey Teams named after them, Black Hawk and Blue Jacket. the Cleveland baseball team went from being named for whites by the Cheyenne [Spiders], to being named for the Indians themselves.

TRIVIA FACTS

The LONGEST War the United States ever fought was against the Apache. Low intensity to high intensity warfare lasted from 1862 to 1886, with few breaks in operations. At one point one quarter of the U.S Army [5,000 men]was chasing 6 Apaches across three states [Josanie's Raid]. They never saw any of the Apaches.

The Indian tribe that based on its number of warriors killed more whites than any other tribe was the Kiowa.

The only U.S general killed during the Indian Wars was Edward Canby. He was murdered at a peace conference by Captain Jack and his followers during the Modoc War. 

Thank you once again for my history lesson for the day!

WARS THE INDIANS WON:

The SEMINOLE WAR-

The Seminoles were a tribe located in Florida, formed by Creek Indians who left the tribal homeland, and an aggregate of other Indian refugees and fleeing black slaves. Over time the Seminole adapted well to Florida's geography and topography, living on mattocks in the swamps, using waterborne transport, combining limited farming and hunting to survive.

Trouble for the Seminole started when the U.S annexed Florida. Andy Jackson [no friend to Indians], and his successors decided the Seminoles had to be sent to the Indian Territories with the Cherokee, Creeks, Chocktaws, etc. That led to the Seminole War, one of the more protracted contest in U.S history. It involved underhandedness [taking the war chief Osceola under a flag of truth, repeated in the 1860s with the Chihenne Apache war chief Mangas Coloradus], small unit actions, and fortified lines. Eventually, most of the Seminole were forced west. But some didn't, and remain in Florida to this day. And the Seminole never signed a peace treaty, so in that sense, they won.

COCHISE'S WAR-

Cochise was chief of the Chiricahua Apache. In 1860 he went under flag of truce to parlay with a U.S Army detachment under LT. Bascomb, regarding the seizure of half-Indian boy named Mickey Free. Cochise was seized with his brother and several other Apache males [see a pattern developing here] in an effort to force them to return the boy [They didn't have him, he'd been captured by Tonto Apaches from northern Arizona]. Cochise cut his way out of the tent he'd been held in with a concealed knife. The other men didn't escape. Cochise captured some white civilians and offered to exchange them for his brother and the others. Instead, Bascomb hanged them. the war was on.

Cochise, with his band, by themselves were a formidable proposition. But he was much more. His father-in-law was Mangas Coloradus, chief of the Chihenne Apaches, and father-in-law not only to Cochise, but the leaders of various other Apache bands. Cochise could call on hundreds of Apache warriors. And he did. And he got some all star help. With Mangas came Victorio of the Warm Springs Apache, Nana, Cuchillo Negro, and even Mescaleros from eastern New Mexico and west Texas. From the Bedhonoke came Geronimo.

On top of that, the U.S army started withdrawing troops with the advent of the Civil War. And aside from the battle of Apache Pass, Cochise had it pretty much his own way. He forced the abandonment of the mining town of Tubac. He stopped all stagecoach and mail from passing through Apacheria. He laid siege to Tucson. And when the locals called in the confederacy, he fought the rebels to a standstill until they too left.

After the Civil War ended, U.S troop reinforcements failed to change much. Apaches fought guerilla war, raiding, ambushing, and striking where they wished. Trained from childhood to run all day with a mouthful of water [spit out at the end of the run], they could outrun a horse uphill. They rode a horse until it dropped, then stole another one. They knew every waterhole, food source, trail and crevasse in their country. the U.S. Army couldn't bring them to battle. Then, in 1872, perhaps reading the writing on the wall, Cochise, through his trusted white friend, Tom Jeffords, agreed to meet with MG O.O. Howard to discuss peace. This time the Army came to Cochise. And after haggling over terms, Cochise got his own reservation, where he wanted it, and his own Indian agent, Tom Jeffords. And while war flamed in other parts of Apacheria, Cochise's peace held until after his death. He had won his war.

RED CLOUD'S WAR-

In the 1860s the U.S Army was pushing hard against the tribes of the Northern Plains, but in the midst of that, they held a council with the Sioux and Northern Cheyenne, about building a road, the Bozeman trail, up into Montana, to various mining operations.

Unfortunately, construction was started on several forts to guard the road while the conference was still going on, and before the Indians had consented. Enter Red Cloud.

Red Cloud was an Oglala Sioux, and when he found out about the fort construction, he told the U.S. representatives that he would not allow the road to be used, nor the forts to remain. The hostilities began almost immediately. What characterized Red Cloud's war was his ability to united various bands and tribes for protracted operations against the road and the forts. He basically besieged Ft. Phil Kearny for over a year, leading to the Fetterman massacre [more on that next month].

The mines playing out, and better routes passing south of Sioux lands having been found, the Army withdrew from the Bozeman Trail. the Indians let them leave unhindered. they then rode into the forts and burned them to the ground.

Red Cloud went to Washington after the war, and having seen the might of the United States became a leading proponent of peace among the Sioux. He died at the age of 90, blind with old age on the reservation that bore his name.

In its long and storied history, Rome suffered far more battlefield losses than one might expect. Most were not of major dimensions, and did little to change Rome's march. But seven were. Interestingly, they involved three opponents: Carthage [actually Hannibal]:Lake Trasimene and Cannae; The Germans: Teutobergwald and Adrianople [as the Goths]; the Celts : Brennus' Sack of Rome in 396 B.C.; and the Parthians: Carrhae and the defeat of Marc Antony.

The Parthians  were the Empire to Rome's east, and Mesopotamia was a bone of contention between the two. But the Parthians preferred raiding to full scale invasion, probably, in part, because they were a predominantly cavalry army, heavy on horse archers and cataphracts. And although the peace was uneasy it held. Enter Marcus Licinius Crassus.

Crassus was the richest man in Rome, and a member of the First Triumvirate, with Pompey the Great and Caius Iulius Caesar. But unlike his fellow Triumvirs, Crassus was not from the Senatorial class. He was a Plebian. His wealth came primarily from real estate,  and his private fire fighting company. He was part of the Triumvirate precisely because he was wealthy. His military experience was limited, his greatest claim to fame being  his part in the suppression of Spartacus' Revolt [although Pompey got the lion's share of the credit. And as the last decade B.C rolled along, Crassus was hungry for some martial glory, no doubt believing [correctly], that it would enhance his reputation in Rome's higher circles, especially since Caesar was putting the subjugation of Gaul on the fast track, and Pompey was a legend.

And since the Triumvirate was fraying a bit around the edges [Pompey's marriage to Caesar's daughter having ended with her death], a 'meet' was held to iron out the three men's differences, and reinvigorate their alliance. As a result, Pompey got Spain and the West, Caesar got five more years as Proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul, and to finish off the Gallic Wars. And Crassus got the province of Syria.

Crassus had wanted the province of Syria, because it was next to Parthia. And Crassus meant to conquer Parthia.

He raised several legions in preparation for his march east. The invasion itself was one of the worst kept military secrets of the age. the Syrians knew about it. Rome's allies in the area knew about it. The Parthians knew about. And then it happened.

A precursor of what was to follow was Crassus' refusal of the offer by the client king of Armenia to bring his army through Armenia to attack from the northwest. This would have allowed Crassus ample food and water on his approach march, and a much shorter line of advance on the Parthian capitol. He refused. Instead he chose to advance from the west, through the desert and rough country.

The Parthian army sent to meet him was led by a general named Surena [who has come down through history as 'the Surena']. His name probably signified his clan or tribe within the Parthian hierarchy. Unlike Crassus, Surena paid attention to his logistics, with carts pulled by camels full of water, food, and bundles of thousands of arrows. His cavalry brought extra horses. His cataphracts kept their armor [for them and their horses] at the ready, but didn't wear it on the move to contact.

Surena also ordered the cataphracts [when armored] to wear cloaks and regular clothing, to be discarded when they made contact with the Romans, so the reflection off their armor would unnerve the Romans. He ordered all his cavalry to advance in files, until signaled to move into formation, in order to  confuse the romans as to his exact numbers.

When contact was made, the Romans advanced in a hollow square formation. The Parthians engaged in a 'ride-around' with their light cavalry 'bowmen', somewhat akin to the Indians riding around the wagons in a western. The Cataphracts stayed in reserve. As the cavalry ran out of arrows, they would ride, by unit, to the rear, and re-supply off camels carrying arrow bundles.

The arrow storm began to take its toll on the Romans, since some Parthians fired high arcing shots, while others fired horizontally, thus preventing the Romans from using their shields to their best ability. The result was the steady dimunition of Roman combat strength, compounded by the heat, and lack of water.

The Romans eventually became separated into two groups. One which included his son was on a hill. Crassus' son was killed, and the news may have unhinged Crassus, because he then agreed to a parley with the Parthians. Crassus was either killed at the parley, or committed suicide. In any case, the Romans, now leaderless, were quickly finished off by the Cataphracts and the bowmen. Surena captured several thousand prisoners, and two Eagles. Several hundred Romans escaped. But Parthia was now in Roman sights.

Surena did not long survive his victory. Fearful of his popularity, the Parthian emperor had him killed. Parthia's planned comeuppance, at the hands of Caesar, never came to pass. He was assassinated just before leaving for the campaign. Antony's campaign during the Second Triumvirate, while not a defeat on the scale of Crassus', was a botched draw. After tha, Rome continuously expanded her power in the middle east, and Parthia, growing ever weaker, was unable to stop the Romans from sacking their capitol more than once. But much was accomplished by diplomacy as well. Forty-one years after they were taken, Rome's Carrhae Eagles were returned to her.

The Parthians also left us a phrase, somewhat altered, still used today. The Parthians were the first army of horse archers the Romans had ever seen, and they were pre-eminent for the abilities both as riders, and as bowmen. They were legendary for firing over their horse' rump while retreating. It became known as "The Parthian Shot", or, as we say today, "the parting shot".

Clausewitz wrote that "War is politics by other means". If ever that phrase had meaning, it was on 16 DEC 1994, when the German Wehrmacht launched OPERATION WACHT AM RHEIN/HERBSTNEBEL,which has come down to us as the BATTLE OF THE BULGE. From the strictly military point of view, it made no sense. The Allies were in Germany. The Russians were massing on the Vistula. German casualties for 1944-1945 would surpass their losses for the previous five years. The ability to replace equipment was now diminishing, due to the death of materials, the wholesale drafting of skilled workers into the military, the Volksgrenadier divisions [more poorly equipped], and the Volkssturm [a sad joke]. Most importantly. the American bombing of the Germans' fuel sources and supply system was now paying off in spades. So why?

The answer was political. Adolf Hitler could see the writing on the wall, and it was written in rope. He needed something, and he had the carefully husbanded resources for one more shot. some 1,200 tanks and assault guns, including the new "King Tiger", the largest tank to ever take the battlefield, artillery, and new weapons such as the Sturmgewehr 44, the Panzerfaust, the Panzerschreck, and the redoubtable Nebelwerfer. But where, and why.

Heinz Guderian, Chief of the General Staff wanted the resources husbanded to beat back the Russians to the East. But to Hitler's thinking, that amounted to spitting in the ocean. It might delay the inevitable, but would not change the outcome. So he turned his eyes west [as early as the autumn] and they fell on the Belgian Ardennes. And that [to Hitler] offered both a military and political opportunity.

The Allies had recently [and finally] opened the port of Antwerp as a major supply port. Prior to that, they had been drawing most, if not all, their supplies from Normandy [Hitler's fortress strategy, at least as applied to the channel ports, had worked]. That made Antwerp a desirable military target. Politically, it provided an opportunity to split off the Commonwealth troops, to the north, from the Americans to the South. And by defeating them in detail, Hitler envisaged the Western Allies throwing it in, and leaving the Germans to face the USSR alone. Wishful thinking? Absolutely. But to paraphrase Mel Brooks, 'It's good to be Fuehrer'

Panning began in absolute secrecy, using couriers and face to face meetings. Lower echelon commanders weren't let in on the operation until just before the attack. Result? No 'ULTRA' tip off to the Allies. No accurate maps or recconaissance for the Germans.

The attack was to come through the Ardennes, in no small part because the Allies considered it a 'quiet sector', and were using it as a rest and refit area, and a place to work 'new' units into the line. It was very thinly held. The Germans would attack with three armies, from north to south, 6th Panzer [later 6th SS Panzer], commanded by SS OBERSTGRUPPENFUEHRER Josef 'Sepp' Dietrich; 5th Panzer Army, commanded by GEN Hasso von Manteuffel, and 7th Army, commanded by GEN. Erich Brandenburger. Both the overall commander , Field Marshal Karl Gerd von Rundstedt, and the field commander, Field Marshal Walter Model, argued against the offensive [as did Guderian]. Hitler overruled them all.

The Schwerpunkt  was Dietrich's. He was attack across the Elsenborn Ridge, and through the Losheim Gap. Dietrich's forces included the 1st SS Pz. Div., the 2d SS Pz. Div., the 9th SS Pz. Div, and the 12th SS Pz. Div., and one airborne division, plus brigade and smaller armored units. He was to advance to the Meuse near Dinant, cross the river and drive on Antwerp.

To his south, Manteuffel was to move toward the Meuse via Celle, and take Bastogne. Manteuffel had the 2d Pz. Div.9th Pz. Div., 116th Pz. Div., and the Pz. Lehr Division.

Furthest south was Brandenburger's 7th Army. His orders were to cross into Luxemburg and engage the U.S. 4th ID. His mission was, in a phrase, flank protection. Brandenberg had one Panzer Grenadier Div., a smattering of smaller army units [brigade or less], one airborne division, and no other frontline divisions [although at least one of his Volksgrenadier divsions performed exceptionally well.

The attack began, after a short barrage, on December 16th. The weather was overcast with fog, and cold, favoring the Germans. But the terrain favored the Allies, as did deficiencies in German intelligence.

The Ardennes of December, 1944, was not the Ardennes of May, 1940. The Germans were limited to the road net. Cross country mobility was almost impossible. And the tanks were a lot bigger. So movement was a problem, as was the dearth of fuel. German columns were expected to seize Allied fuel dumps. And they didn't always have any idea where they were. And the same went for Allied units. Still, the opening round was a smashing success, except on the Elsenborn Ridge.

The 12th SS attacked, expecting, as per intel, a green American regiment. Instead, they got not only that unit, but the U.S. 23rd Infantry regiment from the 2d ID. They were thrown back. And despite repeated attacks that bloodied the SS, they never took the ridge.

Further south the Germans had better results. the U.S. 106th division was encircled south of the Losheim Gap. The 1st SS, spearheaded by Kampfgruppe Peiper blew through the Gap and headed west. Manteuffel's units made a large scale breakthrough, and headed west, passing through, and bypassing Bastogne. Only at the other end of the line,Brandenberger's did the Germabns fail to make any significant advance.

The Allied command, except for Dwight Eisenhower, and George Patton, was in a panic. Higher  HQs J-2s and G-2s had discounted any offensive German offensives[although G-2s had been warning them something was up], so initially, on the 1st day, Omar Bradley and Courtney Hodges had decided the attack was a local spoiling attack. By Day 2, Bradley had to move his own HQ, because the German axis of advance ran through it.

Adding to the confusion, and fear, were two German special ops. the first involved an airborne drop on the northern flank. It caused some anxiety, but not much. The second was much more successful. It involved Otto Skorzeny's 150th Pz. Brigade, using captured American equipment and English speaking Germans in American uniforms. Sent ahead of Peiper, it was tasked with sabotage, causing confusion, changing road signs, and generally raising hell. UIt succeeded byond its wildest expectations. But it didn't change the course of the battle.

One thing that did effect the battle occurred at a crossroads near a town called Malmedy. An American artillery unit was captured by Kampfgruppe Peiper. they wer3e put in a field under guard and successively handed off, one unit to the next, as the 1st SS Pz. regiment moved on. But after the handover to the 9th SS engineers, a tank driver, Georg Phleps, pulled a pistol, and started shooting. Other SS guards joined in. and by the time they were done, many of the prisoners were dead, or wounded, with roving SS finishing them off. Word spread quickly. American resolve stiffened. And few SS prisoners were taken from then on.

Eisenhower split the front, to Bradley's chagrin. He gave the northern half [and the U.S. 9th Army] to Montgomery. He left Bradley the southern half, and the hard charging George Patton, driving up from the south, where he'd turned three divisions 90 degrees of their axis of advance, and attacked north in three days.

By this time, the German effort had been funneled to Bastogne. Peiper had been forced to abandon his tanks after running out of fuel, near Stavelot [where his men murdered over 100 civilians], and walk back to German lines. Elsenborn Ridge was still held by the Americans. So the 2d SS and 9th SS were shifted [with the remains of the 12th SS] down to Bastogne. But although encircled by the Germans, the 101st Airborne held out [as BG Macauliffe said, 'Nuts']. And then things broke for the Allies.

First the weather cleared. And for the first time in a week, Allied Airpower hit the sky [and the Germans] with a vengeance. Then Patton broke through to Bastogne.  For all purposes, it was over, but not quite. The U.S 2d Armored division destroyed its stationary [out of fuel]German counterpart near Celle. It was as close o the Meuse as the Germans ever got. Then there was the slog to drive the Germans back. Patton, who had wanted to attack north at the base of the Bulge [and been overruled], drove to Houfallize to link up with the Brits, who showed up late. But by early January, the Germans were back to their start lines, minus many casualties, and the loss of irreplaceable material, especially armor. To add insult to injury, after it was all over but the crying, the Luftwaffe launched an 800 plane raid on Allied airfields on 8 JAN 45 called Operation Bodenplatte. It resulted in minor damage to the Allies, but the loss of 300 planes, and half-trained pilots to the Luftwaffe. Plus the wasted fuel.

The Russians launched an offensive on January 20th. the Germans had almost nothing to stop it. In the west, Monty held a news conference where he claimed credit for the win. Relations got so bad, Churchill had to make a speech in the House of Commans. Ike then gave Monty subordinate operations to Bradley for the rest of the war.

For the Germans, it was a catastrophe. They no longer had the men, or equipment to successfully launch a major offensive. Their last gasp was 6th SS Pz. Army at Lake Balaton, Hungary. An attack to protect Germany's last oil wells failed, despite an almost Herculean effort by the Waffen SS to carry it off. Hitler ordered the SS units involved to be stripped of their divisional cuffbands. According to some stories, they sent them back to Berlin in a chamber pot, with one soldier's arm still in his sleeve.

And Clausewitz would have laughed.

It had been Walter von Brauchitsch [C in C, German Army] and Franz Halder's [Chief, German Genefral Staff]dream [but not their Fuehrer's]. Contrary to Hitler's express wish, they had tailored OPERATION BARBAROSSA to achieve that dream. And on 5 DEC 1941, that dream became a nightmare.

When Hitler ordered BARBAROSSA, there was one area of agreement. The Red Army was to be destroyed as close to the Nazi-Soviet border as possible. But that was possibly the only goal agreed upon. Hitler, following the precepts of MEIN KAMPF, was looking for lebensraum and economic assets. His goals were the occupation of Ukraine [grains and cereals], the Donbass [coal and nickel and other minerals, plus industrial capacity, and the Leningrad area [factories]. In sum, he was looking long term, in economic terms.

the German Heere [Army] leadership team, Brauchitsch and Halder, looked at the operation in strictly military terms, with one exception. THEY were fixated on Moscow. the pair believed that by driving on, and capturing Moscow, they would force the Red Army [the strength of which German intelligence had SERIOUSLY underestimated]to make a final stand with its remnants to save the Soviet capitol. And to achieve this end, while paying lip service to Hitler, the organized the offensive accordingly. Thus, when the Germans crossed the border on 22 JUNE, fully half the German Armor faced Moscow, with Army Group South, facing the strongest soviet troop deployment, formidable geographic obstacles, and tasked with the occupation of almost half the German's geographic objectives, with one panzer group, and Army Group North, tasked with the capture of the Baltic States, and Leningrad, also had one.

The wheels fell off at Smolensk. Despite having half the armor, it took Army Group Center a month to take the city, setting back the timetable. Then came the Kiev encirclement [discussed in a previous post]. Finally, in Autumn, Hitler gave his consent for the attack on Moscow [OPERATION TYPHUN], also discussed in a previous post.

By December 5th, units of the German Army were less than 12 clicks from Moscow. They saw the spires of the Kremlin. but their bolt was shot. Ill prepared for one of the worst winters in a century, the Germans were at the end of their rope. The infantry suffered from a lack of winter uniforms. the uniform items they had were particularly ill suited to the cold. Solvents, hydraulic fluids and lubricants could not function as expected in the low temperatures. German tank crews had to start fires under their engines to turn them over. Artillery pieces could not recoil. Airplanes had no de-icing capability, and the engines wouldn't start. Re-supply had largely broken down. Combat incapacitation increased dramatically, especially with severe frostbite. The German offensive gasped to a halt.

And then the Soviets struck. Having finally believed Richard Sorge, the crown jewel of GRU intelligence, assigned to Tokyo, that the Japanese were not going to attack  Siberia, Stalin had already begun the draw down, and transfer to the west of elements of the Soviet Far East Army, particularly the Soviet Siberian units. Redeployed in front of Moscow straight from the trains that brought them west, they attacked on the 5th. They broke through on the 6th, and began driving deep into the German lines.

The Germans began to retreat at a faster and faster pace. Hitler issued his first 'stand fast order'. It worked. The Soviet offensive slowed, then subsided [Hitler was aided by Stalin's insistence that the offensive be expanded, and hence, diluted]. However, Hitler's success would lead to more and more 'stand fast' orders as the war continued with less and less success [the channel ports being an exception] eventually leading the German Army into a static mode of war that robbed them of their ace in the hole, mobility. Hitler also relieved all three Army Group commanders, Guderian, Hoeppner [half his Panzer Group Commanders, and Brauchitsch [whom he replaced with himself]

On December 7th, the Japanese, who had foregone Siberia, bombed Pearl Harbor. On December 11th, Hitler declared war on the United States, effectively losing the war for good. The German Army would go on to a succession of smaller and smaller, and eventually no, victories, surrendering on May 7th and 8th, 1945. But its myth of invincibility, established in campaigns from Poland to North Africa, from Norway to the Balkans and Greece, had been shattered in the snows of Moscow on December 5th, 1941.

World War II was fought over two countries, the Soviet Union, and the Dutch East Indies [now known as Indonesia]. The former was the focal point of Hitler's obsession with geopolitics and lebensraum, the latter because of its oil. And that oil was the focal point of Japan's planning starting in 1940.

The problem the Japanese faced was Franklin D. Roosevelt and China. Japan had been at war with China since 1931, when she seized Manchuria, turned it into the puppet state of Manchukuo, and installed the last Manchu Emperor of China, Henry Pu Yi as Emperor. Manchuria gave Japan many needed resources, coal and minerals among them, but no oil. In 1937, the Japanese invaded the rest of northern China, and also seized the strategic coastal enclaves.

This did not sit well with FDR, who fancied himself somewhat of a China hand, due to the fact his mother's family had made a fortune selling opium in China. Instinctively siding with China, FDR's attitude toward Japan hardened, and he began to look for ways to pressure the Japanese into withdrawing.

And then, the Germans overran and destroyed France in 1940. One result of the blitzkrieg was that Japan got the Germans to force the French into allowing the Japanese to occupy French Indochina. At that point two things happened. Roosevelt looked to further up the pressure, and the Royal Navy launched an air attack on Taranto Harbor, in Italy, sinking two Italian battleships, and damaging another. The Japanese naval attache in Britain [I believe, or Berlin, less likely], Minoru Genda, gathered all the information he could gather, at the request of the new commander of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.

Roosevelt hit upon the ultimate lever to put pressure on Japan. Having already embargoed Japan's acquisition of U.S. scrap metal, he now placed a total embargo on Japanese procurement of oil, and aviation fuel. Since almost all of Japan's fuel came from the United States, Roosevelt was effectively strangling both the Japanese economy, and the Japanese navy's ability to wage war.

[As an interesting aside, Roosevelt received memos from his Treasury Department calling for the hard line. They came from Harry Dexter White, who was also an NKVD agent. And Stalin's interest was better served if the Japanese turned south instead of attacking him].

And much to Japan's surprise, Roosevelt was not only demanding Japan withdraw from Indochina, but China as well, in return for the lifting of the embargo. Having lost a great deal of blood and treasure in their almost 10 years of war, the Japanese were not inclined to accede, but they kept talking. They also prepared other options. And those options included war.

The math was simple. The Japanese fleet had roughly three months reserves of fuel by late 1941. Where was there oil? The Dutch East Indies. But to seize the oil meant war with the Dutch. Who were allied with Great Britain. Which meant war with the Brits. So the Japanese Army and Navy were looking at a drive south that now included Malaya, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, and eventually Burma, and some Pacific archipelagos.

But what about the Americans? The drive south would take the Japanese past the Philippines. And Roosevelt had moved the Pacific Fleet from the West Coast to Pearl Harbor. That meant proceeding south with three aircraft carriers and eight battleships, plus cruisers, etc. sitting on their left flank, and controlled by no friend to Japan. Enter Yamamoto.

Yamamoto was one of the most air minded  sailors in the Japanese Navy. He cast his gaze on Pearl Harbor, and began to play with the idea of striking it. And he had the perfect weapon to do so, the First Air Fleet, usually referred to as "KIDO BUTAI", 'The Strike Force', a fleet built around four [later six] aircraft carriers accompanied by fast battleships, cruisers modified for scout planes, and destroyers. The carriers carried three different types of aircraft, the 'Kate', a high level and torpedo bomber, the 'Val' a dive bomber, and the 'Zero' fighter. The first two were the equal of anything being flown in the Pacific. the Zero was the equal of, or better than, anything in the world.

The problems the Japanese faced were twofold: how to overcome the shallow depth of Pearl Harbor for torpedo attack, and how to provide heavy enough bombs to penetrate the battleships' armored decks. As to the former, they stole a page from the Brits at Taranto [shallower than Pearl Harbor], and put wooden stabilizer fins on the torpedoes. For the latter, they converted 16" shells from the flagship NAGATO into bombs.

By early November, they were ready, and the ships of KIDO BUTAI slipped their moorings, and in small groups headed north to the Kurile Islands. The fleet consisted of Carrier Division 1 [AKAGI and KAGA], Carrier Division 2 [SORYU and HIRYU], and the newly formed Carrier Division 5 [SHOKAKU and ZUIKAKU], plus two fast battleships, the usual escorts, and a train of tankers and supply ships. They were commanded by Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, who was not an airman. He was a torpedo expert who had been a destroyer man. He was there solely based on seniority. To help him, his air commander was Minoru Genda, who had planned the details of the attack. The air commander for the attack would be Commander Fuchida.

When no diplomatic breakthrough occurred by 25 November, KIDO BUTAI sortied from Tankan Bay, and headed across the Northern Pacific, following a route scouted by a liner earlier. Stopping to refuel twice,  the carriers were approximately 200 miles NNW of Hawaii on December 7th. Some 180 planes constituted the first attack wave. They came in from both sides, and down the middle of Oahu. They were picked up by an Army radar unit, but the news wasn't passed up the chain of command past their own CO. In a like vein, the report of the U.S.S WARD, a destroyer that sighted and fired on [and sank]a Japanese midget submarine, didn't reach senior staff until the attack was almost underway.

The first objectives hit, contrary to the movies, were the airfields. The Japanese were determined to prevent an air attack on their bombers. Zeros strafed the airfields, followed by bombers [most from Carrier Division 5]. Since the Army commander, LTG Walter Short, was more concerned with sabotage than air attack, he had his planes lined  up wingtip to wingtip on the runways. It was a duck shoot.

First into the harbor were shotais of Kates with the modified torpedoes. From his vantage point above, Fuchida radioed the fleet, the words "Tora!, Tora! Tora!" indicating complete surprise [due to atmospherics, Yamamoto on the NAGATO heard it back in Japan]The torpedoes worked successfully in the shallow depths of Pearl Harbor, wreaking havoc on the outboard ships. More Kates flew high overhead, in the role of horizontal bombers. It was one of these Kates that dropped the bomb on U.S.S ARIZONA, which set off her magazines and blew her up. By the time the first wave left OKLAHOMA was capsized, NEVADA had beached herself, ARIZONA was a mass of flames, and the remaining battleships suffered damage that ranged from fairly light to fairly serious.

By now, the Americans were responding to the attack in a more organized, more disciplined way. When the second wave, of some 160 aircraft showed up, the AA was intense, and U.S Army pilots in P 40s were up. The result was 29 Japanese aircraft shot down  before the Japanese left. The attack was over. Some 20 plus ships had been sunk or damaged. Over 2,000 Americans were dead [half on ARIZONA]. 170 planes were destroyed, and almost as many damaged. BUT the Japanese had failed to attack the oil storage tanks, the drydocks, or the U.S. submarines [Genda wanted a third attack, but Nagumo refused, in large part because no U.S. carriers were found at Pearl]. So KIDO BUTAI  recovered her aircraft, and sailed away.

Tactically, Pearl Harbor was a success. Strategically it wasn't. And it masked the fact that the Japanese were able to mount carrier raids, but not long term operations. They never built the 'trains' the U.S fleets did that allowed them to operate for months on end at sea. And the Japanese never replaced the types of aircraft that attacked Pearl Harbor on their carriers with new types.

By the end of the war, every ship of KIDO BUTAI had been sunk. But on December 7th, 1941, they were the best in the world.

Thank you for posting....Never forget Pearl Harbor! 

Pearl Harbor Day 2016: Photos From the Attack

http://heavy.com/news/2016/12/pearl-harbor-day-photos-of-the-attack-photographs-best-top-remembrance/

The  Reich that was supposed to exist for a thousand years became 'a dead man walking' on 11 DEC 1941, when Adolf Hitler declared war on the United states of America. In fact, that Reich would continue to exist for a mere 40 months and 28 days from the declaration. And a valid question is why did Hitler do it. He was already at war with the two remaining first tier nations in Europe, Great Britain and the Soviet union. There was no reason to believe that the united States was going to unilaterally declare war on Germany. Indeed, the declaration of war by the U.S. on 8 DEC applied only to the Empire of Japan. So why?

In the immediate time frame, Hitler was almost euphoric over Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, despite the fact he was given no prior notice of Japan's plans, and despite the fact that the Japanese war with America [and Britain, the Netherlands and Australia, New Zealand, and the rest of the Commonwealth] boded ill for the prospect of a Japanese attack on the U.S.S.R., which Hitler had been urging on the Japanese. He served champagne to the members of his staff and entourage at the Wolfsschanze. He enthused that the Japanese hadn't lost a war in 3,000 years. And yet, that hardly seemed the basis for launching into a war with the greatest industrial power on the planet. And it wasn't.

Hitler's view of America was a jumble of shrewd assessment of its mass production [at least as far as the assembly line of the auto industry [Hitler loved cars. Hell, he helped design the Volkswagen], contempt for the racial polyglot society he saw through the 'eyes' of Nazi racial ideology and for the U.S's democratic society, and a romanticized view provided by the Karl May western novels of his youth, which he still periodically read. Neither he, nor Ribbentropp, had an accurate, or even semi-accurate picture of America and what it could do.

Then there was the recent history between the Reich and America. Hitler believed, in the period from Poland through early 1941, that FDR was trying to get Germany into a war, or more correctly, get the U.S. into the ongoing war with Germany.  The division with Great Britain of the Atlantic Ocean into defensive zones made the U.S a technical co-belligerent if Germany chose to construe it so under international law. Ditto the destroyers for bases deal, lend lease, and other programs. Hitler let it pass. Then U.S escorts began radioing U-boat positions to the British. and eventually depth charging U-boats. U-boats then sank U.S destroyers, one of which the RUEBEN JAMES, inspired a burst of patriotism from Pete Seeger [who gave up militating against U.S. involvement in the war on June 23d]. Hitler overruled Grand Admiral Raeder's and Admiral Doenitz's demands that Germany declare war. So by 11 DEC, Hitler was of the mind that war with the U.S was inevitable, and the only question was when.

Absent the Japanese action, he would probably have waited. but the Japanese acted. And to Hitler, it was an irresistible opportunity. By winter, 1941, the U.S had achieved nowhere near the rearmament, and reconstitution of her forces the government envisaged. the masses of tanks, cannon, aircraft and other supplies were still in planning and/or in the pipeline. but industry hadn't fully geared up. And while the U.S army was no longer 17th in the world behind Romania, it wasn't exactly on the same level as the Wehrmacht. The General Staff thought the U.S wouldn't catch up for two years. With the Japanese success at Pearl Harbor, and its march through the Philippines, Hitler apparently thought it would take longer, and with the U.S forced to fight in Asia AND the western European theater [the Mediterranean was an afterthought], probably thought he had more time. He was wrong.

The United States wound up fielding an army as large as the one the Germans invaded the U.S.S.R. with, with one difference. It was fully mechanized. No 600,000 horses for them. The U.S. produced enough aircraft to fill their own needs, and to provide to the Commonwealth and British forces, and the U.S.S.R.. The U.S provided thousands of trucks to the Red Army that allowed the Soviets to concentrate on tank production for their drive west. And the U.S. provided food for all our Allies.

With the U.S in the war against Germany, from the production issue alone, Germany was doomed. Add in the troops that were an absolute necessity for the British to even attempt an invasion of northwest Europe, one can see Hitler's declaration was absolute idiocy. Idiocy based on arguable points, but idiocy none the less. Because absent Hitler's declaration of war, it is highly doubtful FDR could have inveigled a U.S. declaration of war against the Germans. Instead, Hitler gave him the Christmas gift he longed for, two weeks early.

It was a battle that led Robert E. Lee to declaim, "It is good war is so terrible, lest we should grow too fond of it", or words to that effect [and he WON the battle]. It was planned and led by a Union general who thought [correctly] that he was not competent to command [and had refused command of the Army of the Potomac once already], and whose major contribution to America was the whisker style called the 'sideburn'.

Ambrose Burnside had had an undistinguished career as a Corps commander in the Army of the Potomac. At Antietam he had thrown his troops headlong across a narrow bridge [now named after him] repeatedly into withering fire at a point where Antietam Creek could be forded [which foreshadowed his performance at Fredericksburg]. He had declined a prior invitation from Lincoln to assume command of the Army, and refused. But after McClellan's sack after Antietam, Burnside felt he could not again refuse command of the Army, and began the road to Fredericksburg.

A recurring theme in the war in the East was attempts by the various commanders of the Army of the Potomac to steal a march on Lee, flank him, or get between and Richmond, and drive on. Those attempts were never successful, even when the Union troops initially succeeded. Such was the case at Fredericksburg. the plan was to sideslip Lee, move the Union Army down the east side of the Rappahannock River, cross at Fredericksburg, and then drive on Richmond with Lee to his rear. with Lee's Army split [Jackson was in the lower Valley, the prospects for success seemed good, IF Burnside moved rapidly and got across the river before Lee counter moved. It didn't happen.

Burnside's plan relied upon Union Army engineers putting pontoon bridges over the Rappahannock quickly, and before Lee consolidated his position. Unfortunately, somewhat similarly to MARKET-GARDEN in WW II, the bridging equipment got tangled in the columns of troops and arrived late. By the time the engineers started building their bridges, they were taking rifle fire from Confederate troops positioned in various buildings in the town, artillery fire was being exchanged, and Lee had brought his Army to battle.

The Confederate lines ran, from Lee's right, through woods, behind and through the town, and on his left behind a stone wall on Marye's Heights, a piece of high ground that commanded an open piece of ground sloping up to the Heights. The Confederates were dug in behind the wall.

The first day's battle, December 11th, basically involved the Union troops crossing the river at Fredericksburg, and driving the Rebel skirmishers out of the town, which they then looted and vandalized. The day's combat showed a lack of discipline in the Union ranks, and a lack of celerity in deploying troops over the River, into line and attacking quickly.

Major combat erupted on Day 2. While Union troops on Burnside's left struggled, and almost broke through Jackson's lines, Burnside concentrated most of his troops in serial frontal attacks on Marye's Heights. All of them failed with heavy losses. GEN Meagher of the Irish Brigade saw his troops slaughtered by, among other units, Irish volunteers in the Army of Northern Virginia. He resigned after the battle.

As the second night descended, cries from the Union wounded could be heard all over the battlefield, but particularly at Marye's Height. They had no water, and the night grew increasingly cold. At least one Confederate, called the Angel of Marye's Heights, crossed over the wall repeatedly to give them water. A truce was arranged for the Union troops to gather their wounded.

On the third day, Burnside withdrew after his subordinates convinced him not to renew the attack. The Confederates reoccupied the ruined town and watched the Union troops go. They did not pursue, although their casualties were much lower than Burnside's.

Burnside then undertook another march to flank Lee in December, which due to inclement weather became known as the "Mud March". The Union troops bogged down in view [and laughter] of the Rebels, eventually returning to their winter quarters having accomplished nothing. Except the removal of Burnside from Army command after roughly 4 to 6 weeks of being in charge. Burnside was replaced by Joseph "Fighting Joe" Hooker, and reverted to Corps command.

Burnside went on to defend eastern Tennessee from Longstreet in 1863 with creditable success. But at Petersburg, Burnside failed at the Petersburg mining operation, and was relieved by Grant. He went on to be the governor of Rhode Island. But his military reputation rests on the nadir of his career - Fredericksburg. and that reputation, as an incompetent, dogmatic, tactically inept,profligate commander is well deserved.

He started the civil war as a junior officer, but by its conclusion, he had advanced rapidly in rank. Ambitious, arrogant, he was tactically aggressive, and seemed headed for greater things. Yet after the war, he was reduced in rank, and sent west. And, no, he was not George Armstrong Custer. His name was William Judd Fetterman, and he was destined to lead the worst tactical defeat on the western frontier prior to the Little Big Horn.

After the Civl War, the U.S. Army, much reduced in size and power returned to the western frontier to re-engage in the conquest and pacification of that territory. And initially, that pacification did not go well. In Arizona, Cochise's Apaches continued to run wild. Much the same could be said of the Comanches on the southern plains, the southern Cheyenne in Kansas, and the rulers of the high Plains, the Lakota. At least two campaigns were fiascos. The Sioux were unbroken, warlike to the extreme, and 'haughty' would have been an understatement. And then came a gold strike in Montana.

the government needed the gold for the post war economy. Soplanswere made, and surveys done through Lakota territory for a road to and from the gold fields. And the government called a council with the Sioux, to get permission for the road, and its protective forts. Unfortunately, several of the forts were started DURING the council, and before the Sioux had agreed to anything. One Oglala warrior, Red Cloud, showed up at the council, announced what the Army was doing, and stormed out, with a large percentage of the Indians at the meeting following him. With the bands in a state of war [joined by the Northern Cheyenne and the Arapaho], the U.S. Army continued their road building project. Each side faced problems.

For Red Cloud, the main problem was getting the tribes to put sustained pressure on the Army unis and the forts. While adopting the guerilla tactics used for centuries against all enemies, Red Cloud had to keep a large number of Indians under arms, and united in large groupings that did not hit and then leave. He did this.

For the army, the problems were multiple. They had to staff a string of forts with inadequate troops.They had to position forts to protect the road, often positioning them in less than favorable locations. Since they lacked adequate troops, they had to position the forts so far apart they were not mutually supportive. They had to build the road while under intermittent attack. And due to poor locations, the troops, in addition to the patrol of the road, had to range further afield than desirable for wood [for not only construction but fuel], and, in certain locations, water. that made them predictable - and vulnerable.

At no fort were these deficiencies more troublesome than at Ft. Phil Kearny. Kearny was understaffed. Its principal weakness were two. There was no nearby source of wood. A train of wagons traveled over a mile to a suitable site to cut wood, requiring an escort, and on more than one occasion, a rescue party. The second problem was a more than adequate supply of hostiles. Red Cloud had a large concentration of Indians not too far from Kearny. And he personally directed, even if he did not participate in many of the actions around the fort, including attacks on the wood trains, raids on the roads to the north and south of the f, and other actions. Enter Wiliam Judd Fetterman.

Fetterman, now a Captain in the 18th Infantry  was sent with a group of reinforcements to Kearny. And as soon as he arrived, trouble came with him. LTC Carrington, the post commander [an Engineer]took a defensive posture regarding his protection of the Bozeman trail. He conducted patrols, worked on the defenses, and made sure the wood details were protected. Fetterman, and other junior officers militated for more aggressive tactics. Fetterman, with no experience against the Indians went so far as to proclaim, "Give me 80 men, and I'll ride through the whole Sioux nation". and while Carrington did what he could to minimize Fetterman's opportunities for causing divisiveness in the command, he still had to use him. Thus, Fetterman found himself in the position of leading rescue parties to the wood train when it was attacked. the first time or two he adhered to his orders which were to secure the safety of the trains, and escort them back to the fort. all that changed on December 21, 1868.

On that day, the wood train was again attacked. But it now appeared the Indians were using it as bait, to bring out a rescue party, and lead that party off. They had already tried the tactic at least once. So when Fetterman claimed the right to lead the rescue, based on the senior brevet he held in the Civil War, Carrington had to comply. But his orders to Fetterman were explicit. One: He was to rescue, relieve, and return the wood train to the fort. Two: In effecting the rescue, he was not to pursue the Indians he had driven off beyond Lodge Pole ridge, some two miles from the fort. Those orders were repeated at least twice, and in the hearing of witnesses. Fetterman then led out his rescue party. It consisted of 82 cavalrymen and infantrymen, plus two civilian volunteers. Fetterman had four more men than he thought he needed to ride through the whole Sioux nation. Now all he needed was the whole Sioux nation. He was soon to find a large piece of it.

As Fetterman drew near to the wood train, the Indians rode off. But a group of 8, led by a young Oglala named Crazy Horse, straggled behind, taunting the soldiers, staying just beyond their reach, and then riding over Lodge Pole ridge.

Fetterman went right past the wood train in pursuit of the decoys, followed them up, and then over, Lodge Pole Ridge. The Lieutenant commanding Fetterman's cavalry contingent further violated Carrington's orders by riding ahead of the infantry. He was out of contact when Fetterman marched into a gully, and the trap was sprung. It appearsthat potentially more Indians attacked Fetterman than attacked Custer eight years later, perhaps as many as 2,000+. The result was a foregone conclusion, and the 'battle' was over in a short time. Fetterman's infantry died in the guly [Fetterman and another officer killed each other in a sucide pact]. the cavalry was wiped out a short distance away, riding back to the main command. All the bodies were scalped and mutilated except one. Fetterman's bugler was found next to his bugle which had been beaten flat, probably in the final defense of his life. the Indians had covered him with a buffalo robe, and had neither scalped, nor mutilated his body.

Carrington had seen Fetterman cross Lodge Pole Ridge from the fort's ramparts, and immediately ordered CPT Ten Eycke [the officer Carrington had wanted to put in charge of the rescue effort] to take another column out. Ten Eycke halted on Lodge Pole Ridge, observin many hundreds of Indians in the gully milling about. In the time it took Ten Eycke to reach the ridge, the battle was over.

Despite the time of year, Carrington sent a civilian scout, 'Portuguese' Phillips south to report the disaster, and request reinforcements in anticipation of a full scale attack on Kearny. Reinforcements came. the attack never did.

That year [1869], the U.S found another route to the Montana gold fields, one that avoided the Lakota buffalo grounds. A treaty was then made with Red Cloud, setting aside a vast reserve for the Indians, abandoning the trail and the forts, and withdrawing the army units manning the roads without any more hostile action by the Indians. The Indians then rode into the forts and burned them down. Red Cloud had won. But more importantly, the Army failed to draw the appropriate lessons from the conflict. First, the Indians had abandoned the usual practice of hit and run by small groups. They had concentrated in much larger concentrations, and fought a more sophisticated battle drill, as part of a larger strategy. And they had done it for a sustained period of time. The Indians would repeat this in 1876, against Custer. And they would be led by the same Sioux who lured Fetterman to his death, Crazy Horse. And Fetterman? He had a fort, and a defeat named after him. You can still see the site of the latter. But the fort is gone. Just like fort Phil Kearny.

She was the most active capital warship of the KRIEGSMARINE. Launched in 1936 with her sister ship, GNIESENAU, the SCHARNHORST was, pre- BISMARCK, the largest capital ship in the German Navy. Weighing approximately 30,000 tons, the  two battlecruisers were capable of 30 knots, and were armed with 9x11" main guns in triple turrets [the only German major units so constructed], and a formidable secondary armament [There were plans to convert the ships' main armament to six 15" guns in three turrets, but it never happened]. In their time in service, SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU were classified as heavy cruisers, battlecruisers, and, eventually, battleships.

SCHARNHORST's motto was "Immer Vorans", "Always Forward", and she lived up to her name.

In November, 1939, the battlecruisers sortied into the North Atlantic, intent on commerce raiding. Instead, they ran into H.M.S. RAWALPINDI, a merchantman converted into an auxiliary cruiser by the Royal Navy, patrolling. Although heavily outgunned, and totally outclassed, RAWALPINDI engaged the Germans. The conclusion foregone, she sunk. But, the battlecruisers broke off their mission, having lost the element of surprise, and withdrew.

In April 1940, SCHARNHORST and GNIESENAU   escorted a force of destroyers up to Narvik, Norway as part of the WESER Exercise. They then acted as decoys to draw off a British battleship, using their superior speed to escape.

They returned to Norway in June, on a mission to attack troop transports withdrawing British and French troops from Norway. Instead, they attacked and sank a British fleet carrier, H.M.S. GLORIOUS [becoming the only surface warships to accomplish that feat in military history], with first blood going to SCHARNHORST [her first salvo blew a hole in the flight deck]. However, in sinking the two escorting destroyers with GLORIOUS, both the battlecruisers suffered damage requiring repairs in Germany[SCHARNHORST more so]. They were out of action for the rest of 1940.

In early 1941, SCHARNHORST, again with GNIESENAU, broke into the Atlantic via the Denmark Strait. The duo, under the command of Fleet Admiral Guenther Lutjens, spent over two months at sea, re-fueling, and re-supplying from pre-positioned supply ships. At first the pickings were slim. Hitler had ordered that no attacks were to made on convoys escorted by British battleships. The Germans came upon at least two convoys so escorted, and were forced to break off using their superior speed. But then, in a period of two days, they sank 22 ships from convoys that had broken up, racking up some 115,000 tons of shipping. With increased pressure in the Atlantic, the two ships fled to Brest, France, where they remained over a year, being bombed by the RAF, and watched by the Royal Navy. During their forced sequester, they were joined by the heavy cruiser, PRINZ EUGEN, which had broken out with BISMARCK, but detached before the battleship was found and sunk.

In 1942, Hitler ordered the three ships to break out, because he thought the ships woulod be of more use in Norway. The operation was called CEREBUS. The commander was Vice Admiral Cilliax. Jamming of British radar was slowly increased in intensity and duration over an extended period of time. Luftwaffe fighter coverage was worked out from the Channel to Germany. The key to the operation was to run the Channel in daylight [the British assumed, and planned for, the Germans to attempt the Channel at night. And catching the British on the wrong foot, the German battle squadron paased Dover during the day.

The Germans did not escape unfazed, however. SCHARNHORST struck British mines twice, the first time leaving her dead in the water for several hours. But she made it home. GNIESENAU also struck a mine, and made it home. But her damage was so severe she was decommissioned, and her weapons removed for coastal defense [one of her turrets wound up in Norway].

After her repairs were completed, SCHARNHORST was ordered to Norway, where she joined TIRPITZ [8x15"], BISMARCK's sister, ADMIRAL HIPPER [8x8"], a heavy cruiser, and ADMIRAL SCHEER [6x11"], one of the two remaining pocket battleships. Her reputation as a 'lucky ship' proceeded her, and her initial deployment seemed to bear this out. SCHARNHORST accompanied TIEPITZ in the attack on the Allied Spitzenberg weather station [the only time TIRPITZ fired her guns offensively]. And then her luck ran out.

The Kriegsmarine botched an attack on the British convoys to and from Russia badly [SCHEER and HIPPER], and Hitler was furious. His first idea was to decommission all the capital ships he had left. Admiral Doenitz talked him down from that, but the Kriegsmarine was anxious for a win. So on Christmas Day, 1943, SCHARNHORST, in concert with five destroyers sailed to intercept a convoy returning to Great Britain. It was a trap.

Almost immediately, because of exceptionally heavy seas, the destroyers were forced to return to base. That left SCHARNHORST to attack alone. One of the escorts for the convoy SCHARNHORST was groping for was H.M.S. Belfast one of the newsest, and most modern heavy cruisers in the Royal Navy. She not only had radar, she had a ballistic computer firing system for her guns, that put her on target, and adjusting fire, much more quickly and accurately. It also allowed her to relay firing data to other British ships in the area.

SCHARNHORST opened an engagement with the escorts, but then broke off. Instead of sailing back to Norway, she 'looped', and tried to attack the convoy again. But the British anticipated the move, and sprung the trap. This time SCHARNHORST ran into not only the escorts, but the KING GEORGE V class battleship, DUKE OF YORK [10x14" guns], under Admiral Bruce Fraser. SCHARNHORST and DUKE OF YORK [DOY] both scored hits, with DOY's hits causing heavier damage. SCHARNHORST's forward gunnery radar was knocked out, and the commanding Admiral, Erich Bey [a destroyer man, initially], sought to break the action off, and flee to the safety of Norway [he had a two knot advantage on DOY]. But at that point, SCHARNHORST took a hit that  knocked out one of her engines. Her speed falling, and DOY overtaking her, she was doomed. SCHARNHORST sunk fairly quickly, and only some 36 survivors were recovered [as with the BISMARCK, fear of U-boats caused the British to leave early in the recovery effort. Two days later, Admiral Fraser dropped a wrath at the presumed site of the sinking [they were 20 miles off], and commended the SCHARNHORST's actions to his officers if they ever found themselves in a similar situation.

SCHARNHORST's luck had finally run out, but she died as she lived, 'Always Forward'.

His army was in tatters, and melting away like snow in the Spring. Enlistments were up for many of his troops at the end of the year, and he had little reason to think he would have an army to field in 1777 when the British came calling again.

1776 had been a series of one disaster after another. From Long Island, through Brooklyn Heights and White Plains and Manhattan, George Washington and the continental Army had been treated by the British Army and their Hessian allies as little more than a training aid. Twice able to sneak away via water transport, Washington was then driven the length of New Jersey by Howe's troops led by Cornwallis. Fleeing across the Delaware, prior to going into winter quarters in Pennsylvania, Washington had had the foresight to strip the New Jersey side of the Delaware of all small craft. And while taking the boats, Washington did leave something else behind - a network of spies.

As for the British, they followed time honored custom for winter time warfare. They went into cantonments to patrol and wait for the Spring to begin operations. Most of the British troops were pulled back toward New York. The strongpoints along the Delaware were left in the hands of Hessian troops.

Hessians were feared and hated by the Americans [who also further hated the British for bringing the Hessians into the war]. Originating in the small German states of the Palatine and western Germany, the Hessians [not ALL the Germans were from Hesse, but a preponderance were] were the only truly marketable export for the small principalities. Trained to a high standard [they were renowned for their bayonet work], the German mercenaries were professional, competent and well led. For the British, the addition of several thousand troops was well worth the cost as an augmentation to their own already overextended forces.

As December's cold bit in, Washington learned that the Hessians had made an unforced error in their dispositions. They were not located where they could be mutually supportive in case of attack. And with that piece of information, Washington conceived a plan that would allow him to go on offense, and potentially raise morale to the point where his men would stay with him into 1777.

And so, on Christmas night, 1776, Washington re-crossed the Delaware, with the intent to attack Trenton at dawn. the plan envisaged two separate columns converging on Trenton. But, as Moltke the Elder once said, 'no plan survives the battlefield'. The first problem was the ice on the river. the second column never made it across. On top of that, Washington's Marblehead regiment, comprised of mostly fishermen, under Col. john Glover, wasn't able to move the troops, and particularly the artillery, as quickly as they had thought possible. The movement required several more trips than anticipated. Result? Washington was on the shore of the Delaware at dawn, not at Trenton. So the attack would be made in full daylight, after an approach of several miles. The issue then came down to attack, with the element of surprise possibly gone, or withdraw back across the river. Washington decided to go forward with the attack.

On the approach, Washington split his army into two columns, putting MG John Sullivan in charge of one contingent while Washington led the other. Henry Knox, Washington's chief of artillery was in charge of the cannon.

The Hessians were taken completely by surprise, BUT they were not drunk, and they did attempt to put up a viable defense. But due to Knox's cannon, the speed of the attack, and the mortal wounding of their commander, Col. Johann Rall [Rall is buried in Trenton], their efforts soon collapsed. Trenton was Washington's, along with almost 1,000 prisoners, and a sizable number of Hessian dead.

Word of the debacle reached Princeton, but the garrison there was too far away to engage Washington before he made good his escape later that day [Princeton would be the second Washingtonian masterpiece in a few days].

The success at Trenton rocked the colonies, the British Empire and the two armies. the British could no longer assume the war would be waged on their schedule by their rules. The moves they initiated blew up in their faces at Princeton and after.

The war would go on [combat at least] until 1781. But Trenton saved the Revolution. Most of Washington's troops due for release re-enlisted. New volunteers flocked to the standards. Before long, Howe would be gone replaced by Clinton. And finally, at Yorktown, Cornwallis, who had harried Washington across New Jersey in 1777, surrendered to him at Yorktown. And the Hessian prisoners? Many of them chose to remain in the United States after the war, becoming American citizens.

Lindisfarne Abbey [Monastery] was located on a low lying island just off the coast of Northumbria, one of the four Saxon Kingdoms of England. It was one of the most, if not the most, famous monasteries in Britain. Founded by a saint, patronized by the king of Northumbria, it was a center of learning, and incredible wealth, with donations from the faithful throughout the island. It was also poorly defended, relying on the protection of God and St. Cuthbert, whose relics were kept there. Its physical defenses were non-existent, and no troops were stationed there to protect it. And so it was that on 8 JUN 793 AD, three dragonprowed longships came a calling, and they weren't there for spiritual solace. they were there for the money, gold, and slaves. And since the God they worshipped was Odin, the Catholic character of the inhabitants and the place meant nothing to them. By the end of the day, they had slaughtered many of the monks, carried off the rest to the slave markets in Scandanavia, and plundered the place to its foundations.

Lindisfarne has become the stuff of legend. It is commonly cited as the opening salvo of the Viking Age in Europe. But it wasn't. Some three years earlier, Vikings had raided Portsmouth, and killed a Saxon official, who won the dubious honor of being the first Saxon killed by the Norse in Europe. There may also have been small raids on both the Saxon and French coasts before Portsmouth. But Lindisfarne grabbed all Christians attention, in part because it was one of the premiere religious centers in Europe, and in part because believers were shocked God din't defend his keep against the pagans.

Another legend about the Lindisfarne raid was that it was led by the semi-mythical Viking, Ragnar Lothbrok [as was portrayed in the TV series "Vikings"]. There is no firm evidence Ragnar existed as he is portrayed in the sagas. There is NO evidence he led the raid on Lindisfarne if he did exist. There is no indication in the record if the raiders were Norwegians or Danes. All that is known is that Lindisfarne was sacked [it would be again], and that other monasteries [such as Iona] would follow. The Vikings adhered to the Willy Sutton adage of 'going where the money was'.

Over the next decades, and indeed, centuries, Viking raids on England would increase in number, size and ferocity, and would go from raid, to invasion, to conquest. The Vikings would also plunder Paris, western Germany the Mediterranean, and Ireland, where they would found the cities of Dublin, Cork, Warterford, Wexford and Leinster. Swedish Vikings would establish a dynasty to the East, the 'Rus', that gave Russia its name, and would attack, unsuccessfully, Constantinople itself.

But it got its real start at a monastery off the coast  of Northumbria on a Spring Day in 793 A.D.

Name your selection for the greatest American general in U.S history. State your reason for your choice. If there are enough responses, we can make a list of the top 5 or 10.

Any era, any continent. If enough responses we can post a list of the top 5 or 10.

OK, guess I'll go first:

[1] The Mongol Army

[2] The German Army from 1939 to 1943

[3] the Roman Army [late Republic to @150 AD]

[4] the Imperial Army of Napoleon [1805-1806]

[5] Sherman's Army of the West [1864-1865]

Honorable mention: The Army of Northern Virginia

Guess I'll start again. For me it's a tie:

General George Washington:
                   
Lost more than he won. BUT he won the crucial battle of Trenton that kept the Revolution alive, and avoided the annihilation of his Army on several occasions. He kept his force in being until the French joined up, the British tired out, his troops were professionalized to the point where they could stand toe to toe with the redcoats, and he forced Cornwallis' surrender. He also established the principle of civilian primacy over the military that exists to this day [ IMHO, not always the best thing]

General William Tecumseh Sherman:

The first modern general in the United states Army. He saw war as a whole, intertwining both the enemy's forces in the field, and his civilian support. The general who brought maneuver and logistics to the fore. His campaign through Georgia and the Carolinas anticipated, by 80 years the German Blitzkrieg that felled most of Europe. A soldier of great intellect, and diverse interests, Shenrman stands head and above his comtemporaries, and many of his successors.

This list is obviously subjective, but I based my evaluation on results over time.

1.  USA military from 1942 to present.  In a league all their own.  In 3.5 years, they defeated the Axis decisively.  And yes, while Britain and Russia were Allies, neither of these countries would have survived without the largesse of the USA via Lend Lease and the people of America.

2.  Persian Empire  -  1,200 years

3.  Roman Empire  -  500 years

4.  Kingdom of Macedonia  - Alexander the Great was a great leader.  640 years

5.  Spartan Empire  -  700+ years

6.  Mongols

7.  Spanish Empire

7.  British Empire

Note:  Many list the German Army 1939-1945, and Russian Army 1941 to present, and while they fought many great historical battles, they are not on my list.  The Germans were resoundingly defeated and only stood strong for 6 years.  The Russian Army has been a major force in the world, but they simply would not exist if not for #1 on the list.  Had the USA and to an extent Britain not come to the aid of Russia during WWII, Germany would have continued rolling east through Russia, and once Moscow fell, Russia would have quickly collapsed and Stalin would have sued for peace or been defeated.

This is difficult.  We have had a number of great generals in the short time the USA has existed.

1.  Gen George Marshall  -  Marshall is heavily responsible for the rise of Gen Dwight Eisenhower, and a major supporter of Gen George Patton, both being on my list as well.  There was Gen Omar Bradley, Gen Matthew Ridgway and a half dozen others that were also notable.  In addition, he tolerated the peacock Gen Douglas MacArthur, who may well not have lasted under someone else.

Marshall was the wizard behind the curtain that lead the USA to victory in just 3.5 years against the formidable Axis nations.

2.  Gen. Robert E. Lee  - in a word, brilliant!  Had the south had any economy other than cotton and tobacco, the outcome of the Civil War could have been very different.  Plus, if the war had a just cause for the south, they would have won.  The war was largely fought over slavery, and anyone with any sense of American morality objected to slavery.

3.  Gen. George Patton

3.  Gen Dwight Eisenhower

It was the classic backroom deal, based on reality and wishful thinking. And when it was accomplished, Germany began her descent in to the long, dark night of the Third Reich.

By 30 JAN 1933, Germany was exhausted. The Great Depression had hit particularly hard [The U.S. DAWES PLAN, which propped up the German economy, collapsed with the Depression, taking the German economy with it]. German politics had become increasingly radicalized as the population saw the center failing to address the economic and societal problems, let alone  hold in place. Election cycles, starting in 1928 had increased to the point where they seemed to be perpetual. And the two greatest beneficiaries of all this were the German Communist Party, and the National Socialist German Workers Party, Nazis for short [They preferred NSDAP]. In 1932, the Communists [and Center] took heart when the Nazi Reichstag membership fell for the first time in years. the Nazis countered by staging a massive campaign in the tiny state of Lippe for the local elections, winning handily, and reestablishing their 'myth of invincibility'.

And then there was the infighting by the political class. Army General Schliecher had connived against Chancellor Franz von Papen and taken the Chancellorship. So now von Papen connived against Schliecher. And both used whatever influence they could muster to get the ear of Reichs President Paul von Hindenburg, the retired hero of Tannenburg; first to get the Chancelllorship, and then to get a degree to rule by emergency powers. But by January, 1933, Hindenburg was ill, and the public tolerance for endless campaigns was eroding rapidly.

Enter Alfred Hugenburg, a publishing magnate, head of his own right wing party, and a 'player'. Hugenburg had his own money, and access to the fortunes of many German industrialists and millionaires. Hugenburg then approached Papen with a scheme. They would make Hitler, the leader of the largest party in the Reichsstag, the offer of the Chancellorship [Hitler had already declined an offer of the number 2 job earlier]. Hitler, would, however only have two seats in the cabinet for his followers [thus assuring Hugenburg, in his own mind that Hitler would be 'controlled']. Papen would have revenge on Schliecher [who was himself dickering with Nazi Gregor Strasser], and the election cycle would end for a time.

Papen signed on, but the problem was Hindenburg, who had no use for Hitler. He was brought around through the use of his son, Major Oskar von Hindenburg, and eventually agreed.

On January 30th, Hitler assumed the Chancellorship. Within 2 months he was granted dictatorial powers. Within three, he had combined the offices of Chancellor and Reichs President [Hindenburg died of natural causes] into the office of 'Fuehrer'. Within four months more, the military swore a personal oath of loyalty to Hitler, the Night of the Long Knives settled accounts with the Nazis' enemies [one of those killed was von Schirach. Another was Gregor Strasser]. And Hugenburg's idiotic pipe dream was gone in smoke.

1929: The Chicago gang wars, endemic since 1923, come to an end in a North Clark Street garage. Five members of the notorious "Northside Mob", along with a hanger on and a mechanic working on their vehicles, are surprised by two uniformed Chicago police officers, who walk in, produce handguns, and order the seven men to face a brick wall with their hands against the wall. Assuming the police intend to frisk them, the seven comply. But they aren't frisked. Instead two other men, in overcoats and plain clothes enter the garage from another entrance, carrying .45ACP Thompson submachine guns. They proceed to fire some 100 or so rounds into the seven, who are then shotgunned while on the floor. The two shooters then 'surrender' their weapons to the uniformed 'officers', and are taken to the police car outside the garage, put in the back seat and driven away.

The principal target of the execution, George 'Bugs' Moran, the head of the Northside gang, was on his way to the  garage, but was running late. He may have been warned off by the 'police car' outside. So he was not present when his gang was murdered [one of the victims survived the shooting, but died later in the hospital, stating that nobody had shot him]. But even though he evaded execution, Moran was finished in Chicago. He left the city shortly thereafter. Years later, Moran died of cancer in Federal prison where he was doing time for counterfeiting.

The principal beneficiary of the St. Valentine's Day Massacre was the leader of the Southside Mob, one Alphonse Capone. On the day in question, however, Capone was in Florida, so he was never charged. Nor was anyone else.

The man who planned the attack, Machine Gun Jack McGurn [real name Vincenzo De Mauro] was killed almost 5 years to the day after the massacre. The question of the shooters and the 'cops' has also never been answered. Two candidates were the Mafia hitmen who worked for Capone, Scalise and Anselmo. But Capone killed them himself, with a fungo stick, when they conspired with a third party to take over the 'Outfit'. One of the machine guns used was found in the possession of one 'Trigger Burke', a bank robber when he was killed. Other possibilities include members of the St. Louis gang, 'Egan's Rats' [known for their use of police uniforms in their activities], and possibly, members of Detroit's Purple Gang, who helped set Moran up for the kill.

In any case, the St. Valentine's Day Massacre delivered Chicago to Capone's 'Outfit'. And they still own it today. But the Massacre was a mixed blessing for Al. The country was outraged. And well to do, influential Chicagoans, prevailed upon the President to order Federal agencies to bring Capone down. And they did, on an income tax rap. Capone got 11 years, but was released early on a medical compassion basis. He was dying of tertiary syphilis. And that's what ended him, at his estate, in Florida.

1939: The German battleship BISMARCK is launched. BISMARCK, lead ship in her class [which comprised BISMARCK and her sister ship, TIRPITZ] was built in clear violation of treaty. She weighed over 53,000 tons loaded, had an armor belt well over a foot thick, could turn 30 knots+, and had a main battery of eight 15" guns. Pursuant to the German Navy's construction schedule, the "'Z' Plan", BISMARCK and TIRPITZ were to be the smallest of some 8 to 10 German battleships.

As it was, BISMARCK was the largest ship the Germans ever sent into the Atlantic [the RHINE EXERCISE], and after a career of eight days, she was sunk by the Royal Navy. But she is probably the most famous battleship of World War II [along with U.S.S. ARIZONA]

1. Roman

2. The Mongol Army

3. British Empire

4. Spanish Empire

5. US Military...when allowed to actually fight.

He is a son of one of only two Father-son Medal of Honor recipient combinations  in American history [he and his father, GEN Arthur MacArthur, and Theodore Roosevelt and Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.]. He was first in his class at West Point, Commandant of the Academy, Chief o0f Staff of the Army during the Bonus March, Field Marshal of the Phillippene Army, Commander of  Allied Forces the Southwest Pacific, Military governor of Japan, Commander of U.N. forces in Korea, until relieved, and one of the most polarizing military figures in U.S. military history.

Douglas MacArthur's father was awarded the Medal of Honor for action in the Civil War. MacArthur himself was raised in military camps. Soldiering his destiny, MacArthur's attendance at West Point was a foregone conclusion. His mother, 'Pinky's', taking up residence at the nearby Hotel Thayer to run interference for him with the faculty was not. [Pinky would go on to factor heavily in MacArthur's divorce from his first wife, 'Black Jack ' Pershing's ex-mistress, of whom she disapproved; and in lobbying for his receipt of the Medal of Honor].

Graduating first in his class, MacArthur went on to a stellar early career, capped by his performance with the 42d Division as a BG in WW I. Personally fearless, MacArthur led from the front, and his men loved him. Yet when many of those same men, and other veterans, marched on, and camped at Washington, D.C, in pursuit of their 'bonuses for WW I, MacArthur, now Army Chief of Staff, used military force  [against the advice of one of his staff officers, Dwight D, Eisenhower] to drive them away, and burn down their shanties.

MacArthur, upon his retirement, took up an appointment as commander of the Phillipine army, his job being to form, train, coordinate that force with U.S Army troops, and lead them against any aggressor [read Japan]. MacArthur failed spectacularly.

Under the war plan in force at the time, MacArthur was supposed to pre-position supplies, etc. in the Bataan Peninsula, and withdraw there to await relief by the United States. He didn't do that. Instead, he decided, with understrength U,S troops and the Phillipine units he had, to meet the Japanese on the beaches where they were expected to land. Result? When his troops were unable to stop the Japanese,they were forced to withdraw onto the Bataan Peninsula WITHOUT the supplies.

Additionally, MacArthur had been given a sizable force of B-17s and other aircraft. Despite a 24 window of notice of the Pearl Harbor attack, they were caught on the ground, wingtip to wingtip, on 8DEC 1941 by the Japanese and destroyed. Kimmel and Short were relieved, in part for doing the same thing [especially Short]. MacArthur sailed on.

After the Bataan fallback, MacArthur visited Bataan once, and then only going as far as adock on the southern end of the Peninsula. He never visited his troops, earning the sobriquet, "Dugout Doug". He remained on the island of Corregidor in Manila Harbor, in his HQ, until ordered to Australia by FDR to assume Supreme command in the SW Pacific. He left Corregidor in PT boats accompanied by his wife, his son, the son's Nanny, the President of the Phillipines, and a large cache of gold.

MacArthur, who now referred to himself in the third person, now engaged in a two front war; against the Japanese in New Guinea and the southwest pacific, slighting and ignoring his Australian Allies at every turn, and taking all the credit for his subordinates' successes, and fighting the Navy for primacy in men, equipment and strategy in the Pacific.

MacArthur wanted to invade the Phillipines. After all, he'd said "I shall return", and one didn't argue with a historical impulse the size of MacArthur lightly. Leyte was supposed to provide the airfields to cover the invasion of Luzon, except the terrain was really bad for building airfields. But it did allow the Navy to crush what was left of the Imperial Fleet. Luzon led to Manila, and a protracted battle with Japanese Marines and naval infantry operating in direct violation of orders from the Japanese commander in Luzon, Tomayuki Yamash*ta, the 'Tiger of Malaya'. Regardless, after the war, MacArthur had Yamash*ta tried for war crimes in Manila [using third hand hearsay], and hanged him [the principle MacArthur established almost bit the Army in the ass in Viet Nam. See William Calley].

MacArthur presided over the surrender of the Japanese in Tokyo harbor. One of the generals present was Jonathan Wainwright, whom MacArthur had left in command in the Phillipines when MacArthur left. Wainwright was awarded the MOH for his actions. MacArthur did everything in his power to deny Wainwright the Mesdal. He failed.

MacArthur governed Japan as Military Governor [read SHOGUN], for almost five years. And then on June 25th, 1950 the INMUN GUN, the North Korean People's Army [NKPA] crossed the 38th parallel and invaded the Republic of South Korea. Put in charge of U.N. forces, MacArthuir watched the U.N lines hold at Pusan, and then he launched the nmost brilliant move of his career, the Inchon landing. Using U.S. Marines to land to the west of Seoul, and drive to that city, while Walton Walker's 8th Army broke out of the Pusan perimeter, MacArthur shattered the NKPA and drove north. Despite Chinese veiled threats of intervention, MacArthur drove toward the Yalu River and China. He also split off the Xth Corps under his C/S, GEN Almond to make an amphibious landing on the east coast of North Korea at Wongsan [the South Koreans got there first, overland]. With his army operating in two, non-mutually supporting wings, MacArthur was ripe for the plucking, especially when he willfully disregarded the intelligence he was receiving about the vast number of Red Chinese troops in North Korea.

The Chinese eventually threw the U.N. troops back south of Seoul [it would change hads again]. But MacArthur wasn't there to see it. He had been reklieved. Always the most political of generals, he had sdecided to open a front against his commander in chief, President Truman, in the Congress. He lost.

MacArthur spent the rest of his days in the Waldorf-Astoria. A Republican General did replace Truman. But it was IKE, not Dougie [MacArthur commented Ike was the best clerk he'd ever had; Ike reminisced he'd studied drama under MacArthur in the Phillipines].

But that long march to glory, failure and oblivion began on this day in 1880.

MacARTHUR WAS AN OVER RATED PEACOCK.

If it wasn't for Marshall, he would have been relieved during WWII and forgotten years earlier.

His name was Salvatore Lucania. But when he arrived as a child, at Ellis Island with his family, the immigration officer processing the family was apparently weak in his Italian. By the time he exited Ellis Island, Salvatore was now Savatore [Charles] Luciano. And as Charley Luciano he would be known until a return from a one way ride earned him the sobriquet 'Lucky'. And as Lucky Luciano he has gone down in America's crime annals as America's greatest gangster.

Luciano's family, honest, hardworking, settled on New York's lower eastside. But Charley, looking for an easier way to make money eventually ran his own gang of teenage criminals, shaking down pushcart owners in the neighborhood. Luciano also met, at the time, a young Meyer Lansky and Benjamin 'Bugsy' Siegel. They began working together, which, for a Sicilian, raised eyebrows in the ranks of the Mafia, which regarded Luciano as a prospect. But Charlie went his own way.

Luciano got pinched in the '20s for distributing heroin. His day job was delivering hats. He apparently secreted the drugs in the hat boxes he was carrying. But his maverick tendency that kept him from the Mafia stood him in good stead later. He was a member of the five Points Gang with Al Capone, Johnny Torrio and Frankie Yale. He was also affiliated with the gang of Arnold Rothstein, whose membership included Lansky, Siegel, Lepke Buchalter and Legs Diamond. Rothstein took the young Sicilian under his wing, and taught him many things about how a criminal enterprise worked. He also taught Luciano the credo he lived by, that your ethnic origins were secondary to whether you could make money together.

By the late '20s, Luciano was involved with the Mafia as underboss to Joe 'The Boss' Masseria. By now illegal liquor was the main game in town, and Charlie had learned all about it from Rothstein [killed in a card game]But there was a wrench in the smooth operation of the mob, and that wrench was the Castallamarese War between Masseria and a rival Mafia faction led by Salvatore Maranzano.

By the early '30s, the war was eating the UItalian mob in New York alive. Luciano himself weas taken to Staten Island on a 'ride', and viciously beaten and cut with a knfe [his face was scarred, and his right eye drooped after the attack. Returning seemingly from the dead, Luciano began being called "Lucky", but not to his face.

It was during this period that Luciano decided to end the war. He took his boss to lunch at Coney Island, and after some cards, Lucky went to the bathroom. While there, Albert Anastasia, Frank Costello and Bugsy Siegel walked in and murdered Masseria. Peace was restored. Maranzano was on top and set up the five families, with himself as Capo de tutti Capi ['boss of all bosses'], and Lucky as his underboss.

Maranzano, perhaps remembering the fate of Joe the Boss, also decided to eliminate Luciano. And to do the job, he reached outside the Italian mob. He hired an Irish hoodlum, Vincent 'Mad Dog' Coll for the job [Coll would later go on to start a war with his then employer Arthur Flegenheimer, Jr., a/k/a 'Dutch Schultz', resulting in Coll's demise]. But Luciano struck first.

Maranzano had offices in New York city, and while he seemed unworried about being killed by the mob, he constantly worried about IRS inspectors. Worried to the point of having his body guards unarmed. so, when IRS inspectors DID appear, Maranzano, whose public books were in order, was relieved. He shouldn't have been. He was shot, stabbed and choked by Luciano's emissaries. And then there was one. Or was there?

Luciano called a meeting in Atlantic City. The five families were there. So was Lansky, Siegel, Capone, the Mayfield road Gang, the Purple Gang, Longy Zwillman, and the Italian mobs from upstate New York and New England. By the time that meeting was over, organized crime in America was organized. Territories were set up and recognized. Cooperative ventures were undertaken. A mechanism was established for mediation and grievances. A governing board, the Commission was established. Among its first members were Luciano, Costello, Lansky and Buchalter. An enforcement arm, to be used nationally was organized from two gangs in East New York. they took their orders from Albert Anastasia. They became known as 'Murder Inc.' The only thing missing was a 'Capo de tutti Capi'. Luciano would have none of it. Like Octavian, later Augustus Carsar, Charlie saw the benefits of 'Primus inter Pares' clearly.

Luciano and the Mob ran the country and made millions. They policed themselves [The Commission even ordered Dutch Schultz murdered when he decided to kill Thomas Dewey without permission], and Charlie lived the high life. He lived at the Waldorf Astoria, and his writ ran large in New York. A senior member of the Commission, he was also the de facto boss of the five Families. His power was immense.

And then it all came crashing down. Thomas Dewey, the man whose life Luciano had saved, convicted him, on a case that wouldn't stand today, of prostitution. Luciano got 30 years, and disappeared into the prison system. Or did he?

In 1940, the French liner, NORMANDIE, taken by the Navy, and being converted into a troop ship burned at the New York docks. The Navy, concerned with sabotage and spying, sought ways to protect the docks. They wound up talking to Joseph 'Socks' Lanza, the boss of the docks who worked for Albert Anastasia. Lanza was a patriot. His son was in the service. And despite being under indictment, Lanza promised to do what he could. When the Navy sought greater cooperation, Lanza told them they'd have to talk to Lucky.

The meeting was arranged with Lansky and Luciano's lawyer in attendance. The first result was Luciano's relocation from Danamora to Great Meadows Penitentiary out side Albany. Luciano had continued to run his empire from prison. But the move made it easier. The second result was close cooperation between Naval Intelligence and the mob. When ONI needed to infiltrate a printing company they believed was printing and disseminating Axis propaganda, Union cards miraculously appeared. When ONI was curious about the tides and waters around Sicily, and the topography of the island itself, local fisherman, who had emigrated from Sicily, began filling in the maps. When the U.S Army worried about  governing the island, and guerilla assistance, Luciano sent word to help them. Result? Operation HUSKY was a success. And at the end of the war, Luciano was pardoned [by then Gov. Dewey], and deported to Italy. But that's not the end of the story.

Luciano was back in the Western Hemisphere wthin two years. He and Lansky had scoutedCubafor gambling operations in the '30s. Now, with Batista as a silent partner, business was booming.

Luciano's presence was also needed for other business, though. Bugsy Siegel had been sent to run the West Coast. While out west, he had discovered Las Vegas, and persuaded the mob to finance the FLAMINGO. There were cost overruns. Plus, there was evidence Siegel and his girlfriend, Virginia Hill, were skimming. And Siegel refused to share the west coast wire operation that reported horse races, with the mob in the East. So Bugsy had to go. And despite Meyer pleading his case, it was decided that he should be whacked. But only someone with sufficient gravitas could order the execution. That someone was Charlie Luciano.

Luciano was subsequently forced back to Italy. He then established toe system used to move Turkish poppy to the Marseilles labs to the U.S mob as heroin. He spent much of his time around Americans visiting Italy. He died of a heart attack at the rome airport. He was 68.

Denied any return to America while alive, Luciano was allowed to return in death, to join his family in the crypt he had purchased before the war. Charles 'Lucky' Luciano is interred in Queens, New York.

Lucky Luciano was, and still is, America's greatest criminal genius. He put the 'Organized' in organized crime. The edifice he built still exists, and makes money, today. He made a list of the top 100 Capitalists in Forbes Magazine. He was a non-pareil, a farsighted mobster, unbound byethnic prejudices. Charlie just wanted to make moneywith anyone who wanted to make money with him. And he did.

This was truly a deal with the devil. Thank you PzLdr !

He was a geeky looking kid from Texas. A number one hit was titled from a line in a John Wayne movie [that also gave its name to Liverpool's second most popular band. And he died on a cold, windy night near Clearview, Iowa in 1959. His name was Buddy holly. And as don McLean sang, it was the day the music died.

Buddy Holly was a nonpareil in early rock. He wrote, sang, played and produced. He helped pioneer strings on rock records. He owned one of the first Fender Telecasters [Dion DiMucci owned another]. He and his group, the Crickets played the Apollo before whites were seen there often. And he was dead before he was 30, not because of any of the usual suspected causes of later rockers, but because of a poorly planned winter bus/concert tour, a cold, and a plane crash.

Holly came out of the Texas fusion of blues, 'bop', and Bob Willis. But Buddy was not going to play Texas swing. He wanted to rock, and he did. but quantifying him was tough. He rocked ['Not Fade Away', Rave On']. He did ballads ['True Loves Ways', 'Raining in My Heart']. He was a truly great guitar player. He arranged his music, and he produced it. And yet, a contract dispute, a wife with a child on the way, and sinking bank accounts forced out on a mid winter tour through middle America in an ill-heated bus.

And at Clearview, Holly had had enough of the bus. He decided to charter a plane to fly him to the next tour stop,. so he could do his laundry, get warm and get some sleep. to defray costs, he offered seats on the plane to others on the tour. Dion of Dion and the Belmonts declined, since the cost of the flight was the equivalent of a month's rent back in the Bronx. so did Holly's bassist, Waylon Jennings. But Richie Valens and J.P Richardson said 'Yes'. and the rest is, sadly, history.

After Holly's death, a local lad, was hired as a fill-in. His name was Bobby Vee. But the music industry lost, IMHO, one of its giants. Had Holly lived, only the Lord knows where his talent would have taken him.

And the song title from the John Wayne movie? "That'll Be The Day'. And the movie title and British Invasion Band name? "The Searchers". [

It was the meeting that set the history of Europe in stone for half a century. It was the ultimate betrayal of the country for which World War II had started in Europe. It was held, fittingly, in the then soviet union, hosted by a mass murderer on a scale with the soon to be vanquished [and dead] Adolf Hitler, and attended by a soon to be out of office Winston Churchill, and a soon to be dead FDR.

Yalta started with FDR working under two pre-conceptions, first that the British were not to be trusted, and second, that he, FDR, could manage Stalin better than his own State Department, and his ally. One possible contributing factor to the latter belief may have been the assistant to the largely irrelevant Sec/State traveling with Roosevelt. That assistant was one Alger Hiss, Ivy Leaguer, whiz kid of the New Deal, and secret agent of the GRU [Soviet Military Intelligence]. Was Hiss an important agent? The then NKVD tried to poach him from the 'cousins' at least twice. After Yalta, he traveled to Moscow on state Department business, and to receive [in secret] a medal for his service to the U.S.S.R.

The principal purpose of Yalta was to settle the issue of post war Europe. For Stalin, it was fairly easy. Where the Red Army went, there he stayed. For FDR and Churchill, especially the latter, it wasn't quite that easy.

Great Britain had gone to war over the German invasion of Poland. The Poles were unsympathetic to the Soviets [to say the least]. Yet the Red Army was IN Poland, and the British weren't. On top of that, the Brits had sided with the Soviets over who was responsible  for the Katyn Forest massacre of some 4,000 Poles. the Soviets, who had actually committed the murders, blamed the Germans. the Germans blamed the Soviets. It got so bad that the Polish government in exile broke relations with the U.S.S.R., which led to their estrangement from the British government, and a serious loss of input on Polish affairs. Coupled with the ill-advised Warsaw rising fo the Polish Home Army, and the resultant German destruction of both the Home Army and Warsaw, the government -in -exile was left with virtually no cards to play. And since the war was still going, and the British needed the Red Army to stay in it, Churchill sacrificed Poland to Stalin [In fairness there was little he could do. British troops were hundreds of miles from Poland, and the British Army was so low on manpower, it was cannibalizing some units to bring others up to strength].

Result? Eastern Europe was surrendered to the Soviets, with the fig leaf of free elections and multi-party participation after the war. And further discussions were held about forming the United Nations, with much of the grunt work assigned to, you guessed it Alger Hiss.

Yalta stands for an ultimate failure, a triumph of pragmatism over principle. A war started over Poland  in the end betrayed Poland - even as Polish troops fought alongside the western allies in Italy and Northwestern Europe.

He is one of the legendary names associated with the western frontier. Yet, except for one possible sighting in California, and a possible stagecoach holdup in Texas, Jesse James' criminal career was basically perpetrated east of the Mississippi River, from Missouri, to Muscle shoals, Alabama, from Minnesota to Illinois.

Jesse Woodson James was a Missouri boy, born to a traveling minister named Robert James, and his wife Zerelda. The elder James abandoned the family, and went to the California gold fields, where he died. Mrs. James remarried, to Rueben Samuels, and had a son by him, who joined Jesse, and older brother Frank, in the now Samuels family.

Missouri, during Jesse's childhood was not the best place to live. It led to contentious living conditions between slave holder, and non-slaveholding, neighbors. and Zerelda Samuels was firmly, and loudly, in the slaveholding camp [the family owned at least two slaves]. Even prior to the outbreak of the Civil War, murder, arson, robbery and anarchy reigned on the Kansas-Missouri border, with groups from both sides, raiding, rustling, astealing and killing across the line.

With the outbreak of the Civil War, Frank James, along with his cousin Coleman Younger, joined the Confederate militia. When they were defeated, he took the oath of allegiance, then promptly took to the bush, joining the guerilla band  of William Clark Quantrill [again with Younger]. Frank James stayed with Quantrill through the raid/massacre at Lawrence, Kansas. He then joined regular Confederate forces for at least the year 1864, but was with Quantrill when the latter was killed in Kentucky.

Jesse was too young to join up with Frank, but in 1864, he too took to the bush. But he didn't join Quantrill. Jesse James signed on with William, "Bloody Bill" Anderson, a former Quantrill subordinate now in command of his own band. Anderson was a psychopath, savage even by the standards of the Border War. He scalped and mutilated bodies. He gave no quarter. And Jesse James not only admired Anderson [he murdered a bank clerk during a robbery because he thought the man was one of the soldiers who killed Anderson in late 1864], he learned his lessons well.

Jesse James entered the history of crime in September, 1864, at a towen called Centralia, Missouri. Anderson, while raiding the town, a rail depot, stopped an incoming train. Among the passengers were some 25 unarmed Union soldiers going home on leave. Anderson took one, a sergeant as a prisoner for an exchange for one of his men [the man later escaped]. But the other 24 were stripped, and forced to kneel on the railroad tracks, at which point 'Little' Archie Clements and Jesse James shot them in the head. In a battle with a pursuing force of Union militia, Jesse James purportedly killed the unit's commanding officer.

Jesse James survived the war, but almost didn't survive the peace.  On his way in to ostensibly surrender, he and his companions were set upon, and fired on , by a Union cavalry unit. Jesse James took a bullet in the chest he carried to the grave [it was his second war wound. He had also had the fingertip of his left hand trigger finger shot off]. James was taken to safety and nursed to health [possibly in Nebraska] by his cousin and future wife Zerelda Mimms.

Reconstruction found Frank and Jesse back on the family farm, but within a few years, their names were linked with a new phenomenon sweeping the border states, daylight bank robbery. The first occurred at Liberty, Missouri, and the proceeds were exceedingly good. Others followed in quick succession, and with them Jesse's first post war murder [the aforementioned bank clerk]. The James gang or more correctly, the James-Younger gang, was off and running [the gang included the James' cousins, Cole, Bob, and Jim Younger, plus assorted others]. It appears Jesse, though younger than Frank or Cole, was the leader and planner of the gang's raids. They were, literally, America's first successful crime family.

By the early 1870's, the James- Younger gang had expanded their repertoire to both train [in one train robbery, Jesse James stalked a conductor the length of a Pullman car, putting a bullet in him every third step]and stagecoach robberies. And then for reasons known only to himself,James decided to raid a bank in the state of Minnesota. The stage was set for the James-Younger gang's Armageddon.

There are some who theorize that Jesse James rode into Northfield, Minnesota because the bank there was owned by a former Union General and Reconstruction governor named Adelbert Ames. The argument goes that James, an unreconstructed rebel was waging a continuation of the Civil War. But Northfield wasn't the gang's initial target. Mankato was. Andthe gang spent something like a week in Mankato, had 'cased' the bank there, and seemed on the cusp of robbing it when Jesse changed his mind. It was only at that point that they rode into Northfield.

TheNorthfield Raid has been portrayed in history books, novels, and a slew of movies. It started like the usual James-Younger robbery. the gang infiltrated the town, and while several members went into the bank, the rest took station at key points to hold horses, or to, if necessary, control the streets and 'hoorah' the locals.But from the start, problems arose.

The first thing the locals noticed was the quality of the horses the duster cloaked strangers wore. Horses like that were an uncommon occurrence in Northfield. then, in the bank, the clerk claimed there was a timelock on the safe. During the delay, the robbery was spotted by a citizen, who raised an alarm.

Jesse James had assumed the 'squareheads' of Minnesota weren't capable of resistance. He was wrong. Most were Civil War veterans of combat experience way beyond the James' and Younger's. Quickly arming themselves, they began shooting the outlaws in the streets to pieces. In the bank, with less than$30 for their efforts, Frank James shot and killed the clerk [Jesse was never in the bank. He was out in the street]. The robbers not dead in the streets then fled the town.

Unfortunately for them, the only gang member familiar with the area had been killed in the street. They promptly got lost, and traveled in circles for a week, pursued by one of the biggest manhunts in American history. Of those that escaped, Bob Younger and Jim Younger were severely wounded. Cole Younger had been hit by 11 bullets. Frank James had a minor leg wound. Jesse didn't ghave a scratch. Jesse and Frank James abandoned their cousins in Minnesota, rode west to the Dakotas, and then south, eventually returning to Missouri. Cole and his brothers pled guilty to bank robbery, and received klife sentences in Stillwater Prison. Bob duied there. Paroled after 25 years, Jim eventually killed himself. Cole was the onkly Younger to see Missouri again.

Shortly after their return to Missouri,both the James seemed to give up their life of crime. But Jesse couldn't give it up. He put together a new, and decidedly inferior operation. Paranoid, he began murdering his own men. But the times had changed. Missouri wanted investment, and the influx of new business. The reputation the James boys had laid on the state prevented that. So, eventually, an obscenely large reward was posted, with the promise of a pardon, for whoever killed or captured the James brothers.

In April, 1881, Bob and Charlie Ford collected the reward and two pardons after murdering Jesse James in his home in St. Joseph, Missouri. And Jesse James passed from history to myth.

Jesse James is probably one of the five best known Americans in the world. He is lionized as a Robin hood of the old west, and has appeared as a character in scores of novels and movies. And he ran America's first successful crime family for over a decade. But Jesse James was a thief, a psychopath and a cold-blooded killer. He deserves to be remembered that way.

He was unique in the history of organized crime. A non-immigrant, born in Brooklyn, New York. A non-Sicilian, who never joined the Mafia [his family was Neapolitan]. A gangster with a brother who was a law man. He ruled Chicago when he was 26. He was dead of tertiary syphilis when he was 48. His favored nickname was "Snorky" [which referred to a dandy]. But he comes to us with a more well-known sobriquet, "Scarface", as in Scarface Al Capone.

Al Capone was born , and grew up on Presidents Street in Brooklyn, New York. His parents were hard working, law abiding citizens. One of his brothers became a law man. Two followed him into a life of crime [one was killed]. But Al was the 'star' of the family.

He turned to crime early, and eventually wound up in the Five Points Gang, which was akin to being a Triple A  baseball team for organized crime. In the Five Pointers, he met three men who would figure significantly into his future: Charlie Luciano, Frankie Yale [Uale] and Johnny Torrio. Of the three, Torrio was the most significant. It was Torrio who followed Horace Greeley's advice and went west, albeit only as far as Chicago. His uncle "Big Jim" Colisimo was a major figure in crime on the South side, making his money chiefly from prostitution. Soon after arriving, Torrio sent for Capone.

The two rose quickly in Southside crimedom, and with the advent of Prohibition, they realized that the potential for making a great deal of money was at hand. Unfortunately, Colosimo didn't see it that way. Result? Colosimo was murdered in the atrium of his headquarters, possibly by Capone himself, acting on Torrio's orders.

Chicago was riven with different crime organizations, generally along geographic and ethnic lines. The Italians, including the Mafia, tended to operate on the south side. the Northside mob was generally Irish in blood, and run by Dion "Deanie" O'Bannion, a florist who carried three handguns. It was Torrio's concept that, as Luciano would do a decade later, all the gangs in Chicago would cooperate in sharing the fatted calf. O'Bannion, who purportedly referred to the Southsiders as 'greasy Dagos" [somewhat odd, since one of his lieutenants, and successors, was Vincent 'Schemer' Drucci] would have none of it. So instead, O'Bannion agreed to sell a brewery to Torrio, then tipped off the law. Torrio wound up with a conviction, the loss of the purchase price of the brewery, a minor fine, but the potential for a serious sentence for a second conviction.

And so it seemed to  go, until a third party mobster died of natural causes. By now, such occasions were observed lavishly with dozens of flower cars following the hearse. And O'Bannion's flower shop was the place to buy the arrangements.

So it was of little import to O'Bannion when three strangers walked in to pick up a floral piece for the funeral. O'Bannion even took the proffered hand of the man in the middle. He was Frankie Yale, in from New York to do a favor for his friend, All. And while Frankie firmly held O'Bannion's [gun] hand, his two companions, Maffia hitmen on loan to Capone, John Scalise and Albert Anselmo emptied two handguns into O'Bannion. The Northside mob was in need of a new boss.

The new boss was Polish, and his name was 'Hymie' Weiss. Weiss went immediately on the offensive. Johnny Torrio, who was still trying to make peace, was ambushed in his driveway, in the presence of his wife [a major no no for Italians], and shotgunned by George 'Bugs' Moran, and several other Northsiders. Torrio survived his shooting, but had had enough. He decided to return to New York, and left Capone in charge. Capone was in his early 20s.

And Capone seems to have decided to live by the old Roman adage, "Si vis pacem, para bellum". While he continued to try to work on an accord [he was successful with some of smaller mobs to the west], he went to war with the Northside.

Hymie Weiss was caught in a crossfire on the street in front of a Catholic Church. Shooters included Frank Diamond and the ubiquitous Scalise and Anselmo. Next up, Schemer Drucci.

Drucci sent a convoy of cars, led by George 'Bugs" Moran into south Chicago. They rolled up in front of the restaurant where Capone was having breakfast, disgorged shooters with Tommy guns, and fired up the diner. Capone survived [he also paid for the damages and the medical bills of the injured. Drucci's death followed shortly thereafter.

And so it went. But while all this was going on, Capone was making millions. Contrary to popular belief, he was not a fat oaf. He had a genius for talent spotting, organization, and business [albeit illegal business]. He made money from bootlegging, prostitution, gambling, loansharking, extortion, and a whole galaxy of other criminal enterprises. From his Cicero headquarters, he owned Chicago municipal government. He had connections and alliances with the Purple Gang in Detroit, the Mayfield Road Gang, Egan's Rats, the Chicago Mafia, and Lucky Luciano, the Five Points gang, and other criminal organizations in New York.

Capone also had a family. And from all accounts he was a good husband and a loving father. And when the Depression hit, Capone ran soup kitchens all over Chicago. It seems to have been a genuine impulse.

But Capone had other, less likable impulses, One was his absolute hatred of the Northside mob and their next, and last boss, George 'Bugs" Moran. Moran had shot Torrio. He had been one of those who shot up the restaurant where Capone had been breakfasting. He continued to try to expand his operations into Capone's turf. He continued to kill Capone's followers. Result? On February 14th, 1929, the Northside mob was brought to the brink of extinction in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre. Moran escaped the ambush. Most of his major followers didn't. By the time the smoke from two Tommy guns and a sawed off shot gun cleared, four gangsters, an employee and a 'groupie' were dead. A fifth gang member, one of the Gusenberg brothers was mortally wounded.

And Capone was facing trouble on two other fronts. His erstwhile friend from Five Points days, Frankie Yale, had designs on Chicago. Capone had him killed. Closer to home, one of his henchmen conspired with Scalise and Anselmo to remove Capone and take over  the  'Outfit'. Capone personally beat them to death with a fungo stick.

But Capone's downfall was caused by his bloodiest success, Valentine's Day. Several well to do Chicagoans appeakled to President Hoover to do something. So the Federal government went into action.

Al Capone was not laid low by Elliot Ness, but the IRS. Convicted of income tax evasion, Capone was sentenced to 11 years in prison. He obtained early, medical release when it was determined he was dying of tertiary syphilis. Released into the custody of his wife, Capone lived out his days on his Florida estate [there's a photo of him sitting in a bathrobe fishing in his swimming pool. Al Capone died at the age of 48.

Al Capone was one of the most successful gangsters in history. In fact he is the face of American gangsterdom. Brutal, but brilliant, he established mob rule in Chicago that exists to this day. As he said, You can get more with a smile, a handshake and a gun than you can with a smile and a handshake".

He was the son of a Rabbi, a small, diminutive child, so his mother called him "Lepkula". His given name was Louis Buchalter, but he has come down to us through the annals of crime as Louis 'Lepke' Buchalter, or simply, 'Lepke'. He was, along with tommy 'three Fingers Brown' Lucchese one of the two greatest labor racketeers in American history. He is also the only major mob figure ever executed by the government for his crimes.

Lepke got his start in the Union wars, working along with the likes of 'Little Augie' Orgen, in the confrontations between Union members and management over strikes and indeed, the recognition of the Unions themselves. And while Orgen restricted his strong arming for the unions only, Lepke and his partner, 'Gurrah [taken from his corruption of the phrase 'Get outta here'] Jake Shapiro, realized there was more money breaking legs for the highest bidder, and began working 'both sides of the street' as it were. And to achieve that end, they murdered Orgen.

Lepke soon caught the attention of Arnold Rothstein, and began working for him, and with him. It was during this apprenticeship that Lepke first came into contact with Charlie Luciano, another Rothstein prot?g?, as well as Meyer Lansky and 'Bugsy' Siegel.

Lepke and Shapiro built a criminal business based on the usuals in the '20s, bootlegging, prostitution, loansharking, and narcotics. But where Lepke split off, and opened virgin territory was labor racketeering.

During his strike breaking days, Lepke realized that controlling specific 'keystone' unions, could allow him to control not only the unions, but whole industries. By taking over the fur cuuters' union, and the rucking unions, Lepke established a stranglehold on vast segments of New York commerce. He was able to extort the businesses involved, as well as skim the union dues. His power was immense. So immense, in fact that Lepke was given a seat on the commission when Lucky Luciano organized it. If Luciano was 'primus inter pares', "Judge Louis" as he was known ran a close second.

And in the hierarchy of the mob, Lepke had a special, and eventually damning job. It was he, who after a commission vote, ordered the hits undertaken by Murder, Inc. through Albert Anastasia, aptly nicknamed "The Lord High Executioner".

For a while things ran swimmingly; so well in fact that Lepke married and adopted the child of his new wife. He was a loving husband and father at the same time he was pulling in millions and ordering the deaths of hundreds. And it was one of those deaths that led to Lepke's downfall.

Joe Rosen owned a candy store. But before that he had been a trucker, forced out of business by Lepke. Lepke had given rosen money for his store, but Rosen was a bitter man. He was also a talkative man. So Rosen had to go. And Lepke's personal button man, "Mendy" Weiss saw him off. All well and good. Not quite. Under then New York law, one couldn't be convicted of a crime unless a non-participant corroborated the evidence. While Weiss certainly didn't talk, Lepke had ordered Rosen's murder in the presence of one Abe 'Kid Twist' Reles, one of the two bosses of Murder, Inc. And Reles rolled.

Lepke went into hiding in Brooklyn, but the heat was on, big time. The mob eventually arranged  for Lepke to surrender, through the  ofices of Walter Winchell to J. Edgar Hoover, personally. Lepke got a stretch in the Federal pen for narcotics [along with Shapiro (on other charges)]. But that wasn't the end of the story, because during his forced hiding, Lepke had ordered dozens of murders on his own account, including Rosen's to immunize and insulate himself from prosecution. And the Brooklyn DA, William O'Dwyer, along with a very capable prosecuting attorney, Burton Turkus, went after both Lepke, and Murder, Inc. And they were largely successful, no more so than when they convicted Lepke of murder.

Louis 'Lepke' Buchalter was electrocuted in the electric chair at Sing Sing Prison in Ossining, New York, along with 'Mendy' Weiss, and Louis Capone, an associate [no relation to Al Capone] in 1942. As a result of the murders he ordered, Murder, Inc. was destroyed, with many of its members executed [Martin "Buggsy Goldstein, 'Happy" Maione, Frank 'The Dasher" Abbadando, Harry "Pittsburch Phil" Strauss, Victor "Chickenhead "Gurino and others]. the man who testified them all onto Death Row, Abe Reles either fell, jumped or was pushed out of a 7th story window at the Half Moon Hotel in Coney Island, where he was the sole occupant of the 7th floor, and was guarded by New York P.D. As a result of Reles' death, Albert Anastasia walked free. In the words of one mob wag, Reles was a canary that could sing, but couldn't fly.

Louis 'Lepke' Buchalter was a criminal genius, the man who almost alone, invented labor racketeering. Yet even before  his apprehension, most of his rackets had been taken over by the Italian mob, and by the time of his death, they were running New York, and soon, the nation, by themselves. 

He started out during Prohibition as "The Beer Baron". He had an unerring ability to find new sources of income. Unlike Al Capone, he beat a tax case. He was part of one of the most notorious gang wars in New York history. And he was killed by his fellow gangsters when he went against the Commission. His name was Arthur Flegenheimer, Jr. But he has come down to us in history as Dutch Schultz.

The Dutchman, as he was known, started out in Prohibition, like many other of his ilk, in bootlegging. But Schultz was known for three things. His operation was run from the Bronx. His specialty was brewing beer. And the Dutchman worked alone. No partners, no alliances. And he was highly successful, in part because he had some truly brilliant underlings. His accountant/ bookkeeper, "Abba Dabba "Bermann  could do complex figures in his head [he was the basis for Damon Runyon's 'Nathan Regret' in "Guys and Dolls"]. His lieutenant and hit mean "Lu Lu" Rosenkrantz could kill with the best of them. And Schultz himself was hot tempered, and a stone cold killer, if need be.

Schultz's operations were recognized and sanctioned by the Commission when it was formed. But by then Schultz had moved into a BIG moneymaker, which was based in Harlem, the numbers racket. Based on the numbers of the first three finishers in a specified horse race, or the winners of three different horse races, people would bet on that number, either 'straight', or 'combination'. The bets could be for nickels and dimes, and the return made betting worthwhile. And while the individual bets were small, the aggregate being betted was worth millions. And Schultz took it over. And to increase profits, Berman figured a way to minimize the winning numbers on any given play. Life was good. and then it wasn't.

First up was the embarrassment of a 'gang war' with a disgruntled former underling, one Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll. Coll was a minor hood, but his nickname said it all. He was the go to guy Salvatore Maranzano contracted to kill Lucky Luciano [Luciano got Maranzano first]. Coll then became a Schultz employee, but somewhere along the way, he developed a grievance that flared into open war, in all senses of the word 'open'. Coll, who never really stood a chance of toppling Schultz, topped a crescendo of violence with a drive-by aimed at a Schutlz associate in a crowded street in Manhattan. One of the results was a dead baby in a carriage, hit by Coll's machinegun fire. The outrage was palpable. The publicity was worse. The Commission stepped in. Coll was caught in a phone booth and machinegunned to death.

But while free of Coll, Schultz wasn't out of the woods. Special prosecutor Thomas Dewey was after him. But in a series of trials [the last two were conducted in upstate New York], Schultz beat the rap. Unfortunately, Dewey refused to let go, and the Dutchman's temper heated up. He went before the commission [he wasn't a member], and requested that a contract be taken out on Dewey. A feasibility study was approved, and the Murder, Inc. boys reported they could do the job in a store Dewey stopped in every morning for a newspaper.

But cooler heads prevailed. Both Luciano and Lepke Buchalter assumed the heat from killing a prosecutor like Dewey would be intense, and bad for business. They told Schultz, "No". Schultz then declaimed he'd do it himself, storming out of the meeting. At that point new business was tabled...

Because of the heat from Dewey and Mayor La Guardia, Schultz had re-located his headquarters to the Palace Chop House, in New Jersey. And it was there one evening, that Mendy Weiss and Charlie 'The Bug' Workman showed up. The first victims were Berman, Rosenkrantz and a third associate in the dining room. Workman, living up to his name, entered the men's room, saw a man, and shot him. Turned out it was Schultz.

Schultz lingered in the hospital, with peritonitis. A stenographer sat in the room, taking down his ravings [A memorable line was : "A boy has never wept, nor dashed a thousand kim"]. But Schultz gave them nothing. Converted to Roman Catholicism on his deathbed, Schultz passed soon after.

Luciano and the five families took over the Numbers, adding millions to their own bulging coffers, and expanding the game's market. But Dewey soon sent Luciano upstate for 30 years on a prostitution conviction. And somewhere the Dutchman laughed his ass off.
 

When Lucky Luciano set up organized crime in the early '30s, it was not a purely Italian organization. the Purple Gang of Detroit was Jewish. the Mayfield Road Gang and Egan's Rats were ethnically mixed. And aside from Luciano's associates, Meyer Lansky and Bugsy Siegel, there was a strong component, especially in the New York area of Jewish criminal organizations [Lepke and Shapiro, Dutch Schultz, Longy Zwillman, etc.]

So when the Commission began to put together an enforcement team, they looked to combine both Jewish and Italian gangs in its composition. the result was the Union of two gangs from East New York, Happy Maione's Ocean Hill crew, and the Brownsville gang helmed by Abe 'Kid Twist' Reles, and 'Bugsy Goldstein. The two gangs were combined for the purposes of contract killing, and were put on retainer. They were also allowed to keep their own rackets in East New York, without 'kicking up'. In addition, the individual killers on any contract were paid for the job. Contracts in New York were passed down by the Commission through Albert Anastasia, who supervised the gang, and occasionally went along on a job. Contracts from the rest of the U.S were funneled through the commission to the gang, and then carried out nationally.

Murder, Inc., as it later became known, had a crew of "talent" unrivalled in gangland. There was Charlie "The Bug" Workman, the man who killed Dutch Schultz. There was Harry "Pittsburgh Phil" Strauss, who volunteered for contracts and favored ice picks. There was Frank "The Dasher" Abbondando, Vito "Chicken Head" Guarino, as well as Reles , Maione and a raft of others.

In an era before forensics, Murder, Inc. was a fearsome proposition. Out of New York City, they came, killed, and left, often on the same day as the murder. With no connection to the victim, they were virtually untraceable. IN New York City, they dumped bodies down sewers, sunk them in bodies of weater in the Catskills, burned the bodies in vacant lots. By the mid to late 1930s, Murder, Inc. had carried out hundreds, if not a few thousand, contract killings. They had even scouted Thomas E. Dewey for the feasibility of his murder [They decided it was possible, but the contract was never let.]

As the '30s progressed, Murder, Inc. began to evolve into a hit squad primarily for Louis "Lepke" Buchalter. Luciano and the Five families had their own killers [One of the ways you 'made your "button"', and get on the books was to kill someone], although Murder, Inc. was still contracted for Commission hits. But an increasing percentage of their work was silencing people who presented a threat to Lepke, real or imagined.

Lepke was in hiding, from both local and Federal authorities, and he began ordering murders in job lots. Bodies began turning up in greater numbers, and many had connections to Lepke. the authorities began to take notice. And a result was increased heat on the Brownsville boys

And Abe Reles, sitting in jail, and somewhat concerned about when, not if, Lepke got around to him, decided to sing for his supper. And Reles sang an aria. His first transcripted statement took over three days to record. Reles brought three things to the table. First he had been in Murder, Inc. from its founding. Second, he had an almost photographic memory for some 44 murders he had either participated in, witnessed or heard ordered. And third, he could give the DA Lepke on a murder rap, the execution of Joe Rosen. Reles, who had not participated in that homicide had been present when Lepke ordered his own button man, Mendy Weiss, to kill Rosen. But Reles, in return for immunity gave the District Attorney, William O'Dwyer so much more. By the time he finished testifying, Happy Maione, Bugsy Goldstein, Pittsburgh Phil, Frank the Dasher, Vito Guarino, and most of the rest of Murder, Inc. were awaiting an appointment with the electric chair, as was Lepke, Mendy Weiss, and Louis Capone [no relation]. Charlie the Bug was sentenced to 30 years in New Jersey.

And then O'Dwyer prepared his star witness for the "Lord High Executioner of Murder, Inc.", Albert "The Mad Hatter" Anastasia, the man who had ordered most of the contracts Murder, Inc. had carried out. But there was a problem. That problem's name was Charles "Lucky" Luciano. Anastasia was a loyal friend and follower of Luciano. He had been made underboss of a family on Luciano's orders. Hwe had helped kill Joe "The Boss" Masseria for Luciano. And Lucky was not about to let Reles bury his friend.

Abe Reles was in protective custody on the 7th floor of the Half Moon Hotel in Coney Island. He was the only occupant on the floor, and possibly that whole wing of the hotel, except for his police guards. Reles either fell, jumped or was pushed out the window [bed sheets which would have gotten him to the 5th floor were tied to the radiator]. Luciano later mentioned that Reles had cost him 50 grand to fix. But with Reles' death, Anastasia was in the clear.

Murder, Inc. died not with a bang, but a thud.

The one thing I didn't know about Capone until a few years ago. He didn't die in prison. These stories are a fun read Pzldr!

McSorley's Ale House, a lower NYC institution opened this day in 1854. Home of [when I went there] two beers for a buck [a pale ale, or a stout], and the best ham/cheese and onion sandwiches on Earth, McSorley's was famous for not letting women in until a lawsuit in the late '60s/ early 70s. I still remember the front page of the DAILY NEWS with a picture of a pioneering feminist getting a beer poured on her head. Last time I was there, they still had one restroom, and were in the process of replacing the frosted glass door panels with clear glass, allowing an unobstructed view of the urinals. the memorabilia on the walls, the dust covered wishbones on the ceiling lamp made it the best place in NYC t drink.

If you haven't been there, I believe you've missed out. I think it recently closed. If you have been there, HAPPY BIRTHDAY!!

When Lucky Luciano boarded the ship for exile in Italy after WW II, he left the New York mob in the more than capable hands of one of his oldest associates, Frank Costello. Costello was almost the antithesis of the commonly held image of a mobster. He dressed well, associated with mostly non-mobsters of caf? society, was soft spoken, and did not have a reputation for violence although it is likely he was part of assassination team that murdered Joe "The Boss" Masseria at Luciano's order]. What Costello did have was connections. He made the payoffs, got a NYC Mayor [Vincent Imperiale] elected, controlled a good part of the judiciary, and had a good portion of the police department in his pocket. And Costello did this, not only with bribery, political fixing and corruption, but with 'smart' crime. Costello was adamantly opposed to the mob getting involved in narcotics trafficking. As he argued, the general populace would turn a blind eye to, or at least put up with prostitution, gambling, bid rigging, extortion, loan sharking and a host of other mob money makers. But, he said, they would not countenance the mob selling heroin to their children. So he banned it.

Unfortunately, there were three problems with that. Mob "soldiers" were required to 'kick up' hefty portions of all their earnings [except their loansharking monies]. So they were always looking for new opportunities that returned big profits for little investment. Heroin was one such opportunity. Costello might have weathered that, but he was confronted with a mob rival who wanted the mob into heroin sales big time. That rival was Don Vito Genovese, Luciano's underboss. And Luciano, far away in Italy, couldn't shield Costello [interestingly, he was setting up the pipeline to move opium from the middle east to Marseilles, where it woulod be turned into heroin to ship to the States]

Vito Genovese was, even by mob standards a thug to be feared. He had been in exile in Sicily during the war after committing a murder in New York [Genovese had killed the then husband of his wife so he could marry her]. He came back when the chief witness, in protective custody in jail ingested, in the words of the medical examiner, enough poison to kill a horse. And he both challenged Costello, and sought to allay the fears Costello raised by promising to sell narcotics only to blacks. Costello still wouldn't budge. But the ground was being cup out from under him.

First there was an abysmal performance before the Kefauver commission that made him a laughing stock. And then there was the murder of his strongest mob supporter, Albert "The Mad Hatter" Anastasia, the Lord High Executioner of Murder, Inc.

Albert Anastasia may well have been the only Mafioso in New York more terrifying that Genovese. Anastasia had been killing people since the '20s. He, too, was purportedly one of Masseria's assassins. And the sobriquet, "The Mad Hatter" was well deserved. Anastasia had been watching the Ed Sullivan show one Sunday when as was his wont, Ed introduced a member of his audience, one Arnold Schuster. Schuster had two claims to fame. He ran a news stand. And he had 'fingered' Willie Sutton, the bank robber to the FBI. As Sullivan introduced Schuster, Anastasia exploded and ordered Schuster to be killed. The FBI was clueless, for years as to why, and by whom Schuster had been killed [Sutton had no mob connections, and never hurt anyone during his career].

Anastasia was solidly behind Costello in his argument with Genovese. And while sitting in a barber chair in New York City, two masked men came up behind Anastasia and killed him. They were Crazy Joey Gallo and his brother. Costello was now alone.

And one night as he returned to his apartment lobby, he heard his name called. When he turned, he saw Genovese's driver, one Vincent "Vinny the Chin" Gigante with a gun in his hand. Costello was shot in the head; it was a graze, rather than a penetrating shot, but it was enough. Costello decided to, and was allowed to, retire [Luciano's hand?]. He went on to fail to identify Gigante in court, leading to an acquittal, and Gigante's thanks.

So Genovese got control, the mob got into narcotics, and Costello got into retirement. Bu Don Vito's victory was hollow. the mob did not restrict heroin sales to the black community. Society reacted just as Costello said they would, and judges and cops would not play ball with the new criminal enterprise. One result was a Genovese called mob meet that blew up in the mob's collective face. It was set at Appalachia. And when it was blown EVERYBODY knew there was a Mafia. The fig leaf was gone.

Genovese did more to destroy the mob than anybody but John Gotti. He bungled a hit in prison that sent Joe Valachi to the government. The narcotics trade brought heat the mob had never seen, even if the money was good. Genovese died in prison for trafficking. Costello died in bed. there's a lesson there.

It has gotten lost in the idiocy of Presidents' Day [originally an amalgam of Lincoln's and Washington's birthday. Does anybody but a Marxist cretin believe we should be celebrating BARACK OBAMA??], that almost maniacal drive for a three day weekend, and the concomitant amnesia over what the three day weekend is about.

But TODAY is George Washington's BIRTHDAY. The first commander of the United States Army. The man who oversaw the U.S. victory in the Revolution. Our FIRST [and IMHO] greatest President [he invented the job], and, indeed, our GREATEST American.

So, in honor of the man, his service to our Country, and his impact on history, HAPPY BIRTHDAY, MR. PRESIDENT! Or has he preferred to be addressed, "GENERAL"!

Two iconic events in American history occurred on this date:

1836 - The battle of the Alamo:

Mexican President Antonio de Lopez y Santa Ana forces marches an Army into the province of Texas to suppress a Texican revolt. His march takes him to the former mission known as the Alamo, where contrary to orders to destroy the mission and join the Texas Army, acting commander decides to hold the position and fight it out, believing he will be reinforced by a force from Goliad under Col. Fanning.

Fanning never arrives, his column being tricked into surrender, then massacred by a Mexican column. And after a siege, a night assault by the Mexican Army breaches the defenses. the entire garrison [except for some civilians - women children and slaves] are killed. Among the dead are Travis, Jim Bowie and former Tennessee Congressman, Davy Crockett.

On April 21st, at San Jacinto, Santa Ana and the column he commands are surprised and attacked by the Texican Army led by Sam Houston. to cries of "Remember the Alamo", the Mexicans are crushed in approximately 20 minutes. Subsequently captured in disguise, Santa Ana recognizes Texas independence to save his own life.


1945: The "U.S Marines raise the flag on Mt. Suribachi on Iwo Jima. Targeted on Day 1 of the invasion while two other columns of Marines attack toward the Japanese airfields to the northeast, Suribachi is a warren of tunnels, bunkers and firing positions, and is an anchor of the Japanese defensive system.

There are two flag raisings on Suribachi. It is the second, memorialized in a newsman's photograph, that became an icon of the Second World War.

Sad to see old places shut down. 

1815: Napoleon Bonaparte slips exile on the island of Elba, boards a ship and sails to the southern coast of France, beginning the so-called 100 days. Bonaparte will march on Paris gathering military units, generals, Marshals and popular support sufficient to send Louis XVIII into flight. Napoleon's return will be capped by the battle of Waterloo, his second abdication, and his second exile, this time to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, where he will die.

1871: Preliminary negotiations between the Prussian led German, and the government of Napoleon III of France to end the Franco-Prussian War begin at Versailles. When the Treaty is finalized, Germany will gain Alsace and Lorraine, become the primary military power on the European continent, and with the coronation of Kaiser Wilhelm I in the Hall of Mirrors, become the German Empire.

1924: The treason trial of Adolf Hitler, Gen. Erich Ludendorff, and other participants in the so-called "Beer Hall Putsch" begins in Bavaria. By its conclusion, Ludendorff will be acquitted, and Hitler will receive a five year sentence at Landsburg prison [he'll serve a little over two]. But the trial puts Hitler on the map all over Germany, receiving extensive press coverage. He is a national figure by its conclusion.

It had started in Munich as 8 men called the STOSSTRUPP ADOLF HITLER, an SS bodyguard for the Fuehrer which included Christian Weber, Ulrich Graf, Emile Maurice and others. It expanded to the STABWACHE, allowing guards to move ahead of Hitler on his speaking tours, while leaving a contingent with him. And it got the commander who would lead it the longest, Josef "Sepp" Dietrich, a former NCO in the Imperial German Army [and the only senior WW II commander who had been a tanker in WW I].

And on 17 MAR 1933, in a ceremony choreographed by Joseph Goebbels himself, the 120 men of the STABWACHE were re-christened the LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER, complete with cuff bands bearing the Fuehrer's name in silver bullion cursive.

Dietrich and his men were garrisoned in the Lichterfelde barracks in Berlin. Trained by the unit they replaced, the German army's Ninth Regiment, they assumed the guard duties at the Reichs Chancellary, and when he was there, Hitler's retreat at the Berghof. Restriced to guard duty, the LEIBSTANDARTE became known by the sobriquet, 'The Asphalt Soldiers'. But neither Hitler, nor Himmler, intended their two SS paramilitaries [the LEIBSTANDARTE,  and the SS VERFUNGESTRUPPEN] to be ornamental  guard formations. Both were of the view that the two formations would need to be 'blooded' inasmuch they were intended to guarantee the internal security of the regime by armed force, if necessary.

The LEIBSTANDARTE'S first major 'test' came with the "Night of the Long Knives" in 1934, the so-called Roehm Putsch. Dietrich and at least one company f his men accompanied Hitler to Munich and Bad Weissee, where Roehm and the senior leadership of the SA were arrested. the LEIBSTANDARTE then provided the firing squads that executed them [but not Roehm. He was killed by Theodor Eicke, commander of the Dachau Concentration camp, and the Totenkopf Verbaende], both in Munich, and Berlin.

As a result of their actions, the SS, until then a subsidiary of the SA was made an independent organization of the NSDAP. Himmler was on his way.

The LEIBSTANDARTE continued to expand in the 1930s, despite the rigorous admission standards. something like 8 or 9 out of 10 volunteers were rejected.  Requirements included a minimum height of 5' 11", no tooth cavities and proof of German ancestry to the 1850s for EM, and 1750 for officers.

Still, by 1939, the LEIBSTANDARTE was a regiment, and a motorized regiment at that. And in achieving that status, Dietrich had fought both the Army, and on more than one occasion, the Reichsfuehrer SS himself. Dietrich's position was quite simple. He took his orders from Hitler. So the LEIBSTANDARTE tended to give Himmler respect rather than obedience. And on at least one occasion when Himmler sought to exercise his command prerogatives, he received a note from Hitler that said, , in sum and substance, "Dietrich is the master in his own house, which I might add, is my house'. Dietrich would be semi-independent, as would the LSSAH, from Himmler for the rest of the Third Reich's insistence.

As for the Army, they soon realized they had traded a bloated constrictor [the SA] for a Black Mamba [the Waffen SS, of which the LSSAH was the spearpoint. the best they could come up with was subordinating the Waffen ['Armed'] SS to Army command.


The LSSAH participated in the invasion of Poland, as did the SS VT. The unit performed creditably, but took heavy casualties [Dietrich was not rated highly as a regimental commander, tactically speaking, although his men worshipped him]. One of the first Iron Cross Is went to an LSSAH man. Bu there were also signs of the 'other side' of the Waffen SS. While not engaging in the wholesale slaughter associated with the seven EINSATZGRUPPEN Reihard Heydrich loosed on the Poles, men of the LSSAH murdered some fifty Jewish civilians and killed other civilians while they were in Poland. Despite Army complaints, nothing was done.

In 1940, the LSSAH was part of Army Group B for the SICKELSCHNITTE, marching into the Netherlands [where they severely wounded the commander of the German airborne, GEN. Kurt Student, in Rotterdam], and then France. It was during this part of the campaign, that Dietrich came close to dying, when his command car was ambushed by the British. Although he survived, for a while that fact was unknown. As a result the LSSAH shot at least 50 British POWs to death at a place called Wormhout. They then, to the Army's chagrin, marched in the victory parade in Paris.

1941 found the LSSAH, now a motorized brigade in Bulgaria, preparing to invade the U.S.S.R. But a pro-British coup in Yugoslavia, and a botched invasion of Greece by Mussolini, sent the LEIBSTANDARTE south.

The unit performed spectacularly. the recon battalion, under Sturmbannfuehrer Kurt Meyer, took Thermopolye, breaking the British defensive line. And using the railroad tracks as a road, they spearheaded the German drive into southern Greece, with Athens surrendering to Sepp Dietrich.

The LSSAH then re-deployed northward, and on 22 JUN 1941 crossed the Soviet border. BARBAROSSA was on.

The LEIBSTANDARTE fought, as a brigade, with Army Group South throughout 1941 [by now there were three SS divisions in the USSR: SS VT [renamed "DAS REICH"], SS TOTENKOPF ['Death's Head', formed from concentration camp regiments], and SS "WIKING" [an amalgam of German and volunteer Western European units]. There was a fourth, fairly ineffective division of reserve police units [SS POLIZEI], but it didn't amount to much.

It was during the campaign in Ukraine that the LSSAH developed their reputation for terror to a high point. Having found a recon patrol with the members hands tied, the bodies mutilated, and the corpses shot in the head, the LSSAH went on a three day spree, murdering 3,500 or so Soviet POWs.  The LEIBSTANDARTE spent the rest of 1941 in Ukraine, retreating with the rest of the Army Group from Rostov in November.

1942 was spent in France, where the LSSAH was brought up to division strength, and converted to a Panzer Grenadier Division, as were DAS REICH and TOTENKOPF [all would later be upgraded to Panzer Divisions, along with WIKING]. But 1943 brought all three back to the Soviet Union, in time for Manstein's riposte at Kharkov, and the greatest tank battle in history, Kursk.

The now SS Panzer Corps, under Dietrich served at Kursk as part of Hermann Hoth's 4thPanzer Army, on the southern side of the Kursk salient. Of all the troops on that side, the LSSAH was the only one to make its first day objectives. the 1st SS Panzer Corps, bore the brunt of the tank battle with the 5th Guards tank army; and tactically, they won.

But the operation [ZITTADELL] ended in a strategic victory for the Soviets. The German attack on the northern side of the salient had been stopped cold. And then came news that the western Allies were in Sicily. The LSSAH was withdrawn to Italy, where it came under the command [for the first time] of Erwin Rommel. The relationship didn't last long. Rommel was sent to France, while the LSSAH was sent back to Russia, where it performed with the elan, competence and brutality that had become its hall mark [the 1st Panzer Regiment, commanded by SS LTC Jochen Peiper became known as the 'Blowtorch Battalion' for their penchant for burning every village they saw]. Then, in Spring, 1944, the 1st SS Pz. Corps [minus TOTENKOPF] returned to the west in expectation of the Allied invasion.

Fighting on eastern end of the front [against Montgomery], the LSSAH performed exceptionally well [see the thread "Tyger, Tyger"]. But, like the rest of the forces in AG 'B', they were being worn down. So, on 17 JUL 1944, Dietrich, and several of his senior SS generals [one was Willi Bittrich] hosted a meeting with their commander, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel. Rommel was involved to some degree, in the plot to kill Hitler [Rommel wanted him tried, not killed], but it appears  his immediate plan was to surrender the western front to the Allies, and open their path into Germany. So he posed the question to Dietrich, whose orders would te Waffen SS obey, Rommel's? Or Hitler's?  Dietrich, who had already said the war was lost, chose Rommel.

Unfortunately, later that day, Rommel was severely wounded when his staff car was strafed. On 14 OCT., he was forced to commit suicide. Without his leadership, the Waffen SS soldiered on, fighting the battle of Mortain, withdrawing East, re-fitting.

The LSSAH next appeared, in a major role on 16 DEC 1944, spearheading the main drive, as part of Dietrich's 6th SS Panzer Army, in the Battle of the Bulge. The right hand of the attack, 12th SS Pz. Div., on the Elsenborn Ridge, got nowhere. The left hand, the LSSAH, led by Jochen Peiper's regiment initially blew a hole through the Losheim Gap and made rapid progress [They also murdered over 100 American prisoners at Malmedy, and several hundred Belgian civilians at Stavelot], but then they slowed, and ground to a halt. The LSSAH' part in the Battle of the Bulge was over.

1945 found the 6th SS Panzer Army back in the East. But by now, 'East' was a relative term. In this case,'East' meant Hungary, and a Fuehrer ordered attack to re-secure the Lake Balaton oil fields. The ground was soupy mud, the weather was horrific, the Germans were outnumbered, there was no meaningful air cover, or support, but BEFEHL IST BEFEHL, so the Germans, with the LSSAH in front attacked. And were handily defeated, with heavy losses.

Hitler, enraged, ordered Himmler to go to Hungary and strip all the SS units of their cuffbands. An apochryphal, but quite possibly true story, claims the LEIBSTANDARTE sent theirs , with one man's arm still in the sleeve to the Fuehrer. Along with medals. In a chamber pot.

Aside from the guard unit that fell in Berlin, the LSSAH traveled west, and surrendered to the western allies. They were done.

Dietrich, Preiss, Kramer and Peiper were tried as war criminals for Malmedy. all were sentenced to death. all had their sentences modified. All survived prison [Dietrich was sent back to prison by the West Germans over the Night of the Long Knives]. Peiper was murdered in France, where he had settled.

The LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER represented both facets of the Nazi regime. One of the elite units of the Wehrmacht by the end of the war, they displayed almost foolhardy bravery, tactical competence and fanaticism in combat. They also displayed a brutality, and disregard for human life that was breathtaking. And it all began when they became the LEIBSTANDARTE on 17 MAR 1933

The SS started out as a single celled [as it were] organization, called the ALLGEMEINE [or 'General'] SS. Limited to 10% of the SA in their area, they were intended to provide bodyguards for Nazi speakers, rallies and meetings, especially for those times when the SA [STURM ABTEILUNG], the 'Storm Troopers', or 'Brown Shirts', were banned by the governments of the various German states, or by the central government.

The SS was under the overall control of the SA leadership, and initially wore much the same uniform, with the same rank insignia as the SA , the key differences being black jodphurs, black kepis, and a 'TOTENKOPF', or Death's Head insignia under the Nazi Eagle on the cap [their sleeve band also differed, with a black stripe above and below the swastika in the white circle on the red armband]. The SS remained small, with less than 3,000 members. And then in 1929, they received a new commander or "Reichsfuehrer SS", one Heinrich Himmler [Reichsfuehrer was not a title unique to the SS, it was merely a command designation for a Nazi Party organization. there was, for example, a 'Reichsfuehrer Hitler Jugend' for the Hitler Youth]. And with the ascession of Himmler to the leadership of the SS, the organization took off.

From the current vantage point of history, looking back at Himmler, we tend to forget what an effective political animal he was in the jungle of Nazi politics. Initially subservient to Hans Pfeffer von Salomon, and then Ernst Roehm, chiefs of the SA, by the end of 1934, Himmler was free of both, the SA had been broken, and Roehm was  dead.And Himmler's first significant organizational expansion of the SS had much to do with it.

Himmler decided he wanted to create an 'elite' party formation, disciplined, selective in its membership, and based on absolute loyalty to Hitler, which was after all, how the SS started. So the uniform changed to a black tunic, with a distinctive SS Eagle on the left sleeve, the same black jodphurs, but with a military hat with a re-styled eagle and re-styled Death's Head. He also decided to establish his own intelligence service. Thus, the SS expanded to include the SS SICHERHEITSDIENST, or SD. The SD was run by a disgraced former Naval signals officer named Reinhard Heydrich. At the time of its formation, almost ALL the Nazi party organizations had their own intelligence services. But Himmler got Hitler to issue an order making the SD the ONLY party intelligence service. Himmler now had a leg up on his rivals [service in the SD was characterized at first by a black diamond with silver piping and the silver letters 'SD' in the center, on the left sleeve. Later SD officers, as part of the REICHSICHERHEITHAUPTAMT [RSHA], an SS Hauptamt, would also wear blank collar tabs on their right collar.

Heydrich's SD began to make lists of the state's enemies: Jews, Freemasons, Communists, etc. They also fabricated evidence against the SA leadership used in the Night of the Long Knives, evidence used to remove General Werner von Fritsch from command of the Army, and evidence used in efforts to turn Stalin against his generals in the Tuchachevsky purge. They also participated in the Kristallnacht pogrom and its aftermath.

While all this was going on, Himmler assumed command of the police of all the German states, with Heydrich right at his heels. With the police power of the state now at the party's disposal, Himmler needed a force to hold the Reich's enemies in confinement. The result was the TOTENKOPFVERBAENDE, the SS Death's Head regiments, the next SS expansion.

The Death's Head regiments arose out of Himmler's attempts to 'rationalize' the administration of a concentration camp system that initially developed on an ad hoc basis, with camps set up by the SS, the SA, and various other Nazi groups. Some of the excesses [see Columbia Haus]were so extreme that the courts, police, and even the Gestapo [a creation of Hermann Goering, it functioned in Prussia, under the leadership of Rudolf Diels] was forced to intervene.

As with his gaining control of party intelligence from his rivals, Himmler seized a march on them, and took control of camp administration. A 'model' camp was set up at Dachau, under Theodor Eicke. All subsequent camps were set up on the Eicke model. Eicke went on to become Inspector General of Concentration camps, and the guard units were organized into regiments based on the region their camps] were in. The Death's Head formations made every effort to be considered separate from the rest of the SS. Initially they wore brown, almost SA type uniforms. Even when they switched to the SS black uniform, they wore a death's head on their right collar patch, instead of the SS runes, or the unit insignia Allgemeine SS units wore. In 1940, Himmler organized a division of Waffen SS troops from the camp guard detachments, replacing them with middle aged reservists. Called the TOTENKOPF division, the 3rd SS fought in France in 1940 [committing the massacre of British POWs at Le Paradis], and on the Eastern Front for the rest of the war.

Which brings us to the third major branch of the SS, the WAFFEN SS [Armed SS], the combat formations of the SS. They started with two units the LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER [later the 1st SS Panzer Division], and the SS VERSUNGESTRUPPE, or SS-VT [ later the 2d SS Panzer Division, 'DAS REICH']. By the end of the war there were over 35 SS divisions [some no more than a regiment], totaling over 900,000 men, and included German units [with SS collar tabs, or in the case of Totenkopf, a death's head] units of German and non German troops [WIKING, with the prow of a Viking ship], to completely non-German units [including two Muslim divisions raised in the Balkans, HANDSCHAR and SKANDERBURG],all of whom were given distinctive collar insignia, but were forbuidden to wear the SS runes.

And the Allgemeine SS? Films showing Hitler driving through the streets with SS men holding back the crowds are Allgemeine SS. But Himmler expanded the duties of the Allgemeine SS as well. There was the RuSHA, the Race and Re-settlement office. there was the AHNERNERBE, as well as other SS formations under the SS umbrella.

But clear lines of distinction didn't last. In 1940, Himmler put the camp guards under the Waffen SS command. Wounded soldiers were detailed to guard the camps. Camp guards were posted to the front. Then there was the intermingling in the RSHA of the SD [an SS formation], and the Criminal Police and Gestapo [state organs Police officers received SS rank. Resrve order police battalions were sent to the Eastern and Balkan fronts as part of Einsatzkommandos, or as independent extermination units.

By 1944, Himmler was the second most powerful man in the Reich. He was Reichsfuehrer SS, Chief of the German Police, Interior Minister, Commissioner for Germanization, head of the Reserve Army, and right behind his Fuehrer. Yet within a year, it was all over. Himmler failed as an Army Group commander. His Waffen SS saw itself as part of the Army. Himmler tried to cut deals for captive Jews with the Allies. He then tried to negotiate a separate peace with the Western Allies, without Hitler's sanction. Hitler ordered him shot, and stripped him of all his posts. Himmler died, a suicide in British captivity in late May, 1945.

And the SS? Declared a criminal organization at Nuremburg, it's members face, at a minimum sever de-Nazification processes, with a concomitant impact on their post-war survival, and at a maximum, trial and execution for war crimes [one of the defendants at Nuremburg was Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Heydrich's successor as head of the RSHA, who was hanged]. It died not with a bang, but a whimper of 'Befehl ist Befehl'.

3,500 United states Marines become the first U.S. ground troops deployed to the Republic of Viet Nam [South Viet Nam], in what will be an escalating commitment to defend the South from Communist North Vietnamese, and indigenous Communist [Viet Cong] troops.

The Marines land near Da Nang, in the northernmost part of the country [I Corps]. Eventually, the Marine units in Vieet Nam will be expanded, and will be joined by the U.S Army's First [Air] Cavalry Division, the 1st Infantry Division, the 5th Infantry Div. [Mech.], the 9th Infantry Division, the 4th Infantry Division, the Americal Division, and various Special Ops. groups, brown water Navy units, support units, and Naval units.

The Americans will be withdrawn after the Paris Peace Accords in 1972. South Viet Nam will be overrun in 1975, a casualty of War, Watergate, internal corruption and a gutless Democratic controlled Congress.

CPT ARMOR
MACV 1971

IMJIN SCOUT
ROK   '68-'69

In the early third century, B.C, the Mediterranean world was in turmoil. The Empire of Alexander was collapsing after his death, with civil wars raging among his successor generals [Alexander named no heir] across the Greek, Persian, Egyptian and Middle Eastern World. But two the west, matters were proceeding peacefully between the two dominant powers in the region, Rome and Carthage. In fact a treaty had existed [heavily favorable to Carthage] for almost a century.

Carthage, in what is now Tunisia, had been founded by Phoenician sailors, possibly the best in the ancient world, as part of their growing trade network. It became first a local power, then a regional power in its own right, with trading partners as far as Spain, and perhaps even Great Britain. It also traded, and treated, with a new emerging city state on the Italian mainland, Rome. And both cities got along quite well. For a while.

But south of Rome were various Latin tribes with which the Romans were at war. And intermingled with them, and south of them was Magna Graecia, a series of Greek city states, including present day Taranto. And who was fighting who and when got a little hazy. the Romans were invited into south Italy by at least one of the Greek cities at war with some of the Latins. And Rome stayed, and expanded. Which brought them face to face with the crown jewel of the Greek constellation. and face to face with the Carthaginians.

There were various Greek settlements on Sicily, the largest being Syracuse. But there was also a Carthaginian presence in the western part of the island, and it had been there for a long time. The Carthaginians considered Sicily in their sphere of influence. the Greeks disagreed. And one Greek city decided they needed help. Who you gonna call? Rome.

The Romans likely realized that if they went into Sicily, they were likely going to war with Carthage at some point. Several factors argued against the move. First, Sicily would be Rome's first move outside of mainland Italy. Secondly, Rome was a land power, but Carthage dominated the seas. And Sicily meant naval warfare. And Rome had no navy, except some coastal 'monitors' [think Coast Guard]. Thirdly, Rome had been engaged in warfare on the mainland for well over a century. Sicily, and a concomitant war with Carthage would be expensive, both in manpower and coin.

But Sicily was a potential breadbasket for the Republic. It was known for grain production. And Sicily was strategically located. Who possessed Sicily had a virtual stranglehold on the trade routes to Gaul, and the Eastern Med. [Sicily was some 60 miles from Tunisia]. And Rome was tired of the "junior" partnership the treaty with Carthage imposed. the romans went.

If ever a war matched unlikely opponents, it was the first Punic War. The Carthaginians were, as noted, a naval power. Land combat for them, was conducted by mercenary armies [formed by peoples of the North African littoral, Greek mercenaries, and whoever else they could hire, led by Carthaginian generals and officers [not the best of jobs. Unsuccessful Carthaginian generals were crucified - by Carthage. the Carthaginian Navy, however, was all Carthaginian [or Punic - which is the Roman name for Phoenicians]. And they were armed with one of the super weapons of the ancient word, the quinquetrireme, a five banked war galley. And Carthage had a bundle of them.

Rome, on the other hand, had almost no navy. They did, however, have the best Army in the western Med, if not the whole Med. It was conscript [landowners only], led by increasingly effective leaders [the consuls, hence the phrase consular armies], and using a new formation, the manipular legion as opposed to the phalanx. The legion was far more flexible and maneuverable, and allowed more delegation of command than a phalanx [the formation used by the Greeks, Carthaginians, and just about everyone else].

The First Punic War was initially a see saw affair. As expected, Carthage dominated on the sea. But Rome more than held their own on the island. But for Greeks switching sides, from Carthage to Rome to their own team, Rome might have conquered the island early. But then, maybe not. Because in a scene to appear on the other side of the world in WW II, Carthage, like the Japanese at Guadalcanal, kept reinforcing and supplying their troops on Sicily by sea, which the Romans were powerless to stop.

And then, a Carthaginian quinquereme washed ashore on an Italian beach, apparently severely damaged in a storm, or in combat. It was the turning point.

The romans reverse engineered the ship. they built bleachers on land to train the rowers necessary for the ship to work. And being Romans, they decided to improve on the basic model. Realizing they were soldiers, not sailors, the Romans reasoned their best shot at defeating the Carthaginian Navy was to fight a land battle at sea. Hence, the Corvus [or 'crow'].

The Corvus was a boarding plank which had a hooked spike at its top. It was secured to the deck [and mast when not in use], and pivoted on the deck. The principle was simple. Maneuver alongside. Drop the Corvus, letting gravity and the spike 'anchor the ships together. Send legionaries aboard the 'pinned' ship. Fight a land battle. It was a game changer. The Romans began to not only win at sea, but win big. And not a minute too soon.

Because the Carthaginians had sent a new general to Sicily. His name was Hamilcar Barca. And he was good. Very, very good. So while he couldn't drive the Roman Army out, they never really defeated him.

It was fitting that the first Punic War ended at sea. the Romans caught the greater part of what was left of the Carthaginian fleet in the islands immediately to the west of Sicily. they destroyed it. With Hamilcar now trapped on the island, and their fleet for all extents and purposes gone, Carthage sued for peace.

Rome got a free hand in Sicily. They also seized Sardinia and Corsica. A heavy fine was imposed. And so it seemed to end. Carthage's army, on their return, mutinied when the city refused to pay them. Hamilcar put them down with great ferocity. It got so bad, Rome offered to help the Carthaginians, but the offer was refused.

Carthage began rebuilding. And to do so, they targeted Spain. they had a presence there, and Spain had silver. Hamilcar Barca led the conquest, bringing his sons with him. There was Mago. There was Hasdrubal. And there was Hannibal.

Hamilcar taught his sons the 'trade', and made at least Hannibal swear undying hatred of Rome. When Hamilcar was killed fighting the Iberians, Hannibal succeeded him as commander of the Carthaginian Army in Spain. He also used the ambiguous position of the town of Sagentum to trigger the Second, and most famous, Punic War with Rome.

Stripped of a navy, Hannibal marched his army through southern Gaul to reach Italy. But a consular army, blocking a route march along the coast, forced Hannibal over the Alps.

Debauching into northern Italy, Hannibal made alliances with, and hired large numbers of, Celts the romans had been beating like a drum for years. He added these Celts to his [standard practice] mercenary army, which was composed of Spaniards, Libyans, Numidians [cavalry] and others. Between 218 B.C and 216 B.C Hannibal fought a meeting engagement [Tinictus], and two major battles of annihilation [Lake Trasimene and Cannae (see the thread on Cannae)]. But Hannibal, while a fine tactician, was a lousy strategist. He completely misread the romans. They refused to treat after Cannae. And Hannibal had no siege train. so he couldn't take Rome.

And while Hannibal wandered around southern Italy, the Romans took Iberia, killed his brother Hasdrubal leading a relief Army, and invaded North Africa. Called home, Hannibal was defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama. Carthage sued for peace.

The peace was draconian. Carthage was forbidden a navy. The reparations seemed backbreaking. and Carthage was forbidden to wage war without Rome's permission. And that provision was the wishbone Carthage choked on.

Carthage again rebuilt. They again became a successful commercial power. And that did not sit well with the roman Senate. Cato the Elder ended every speech, on every subject with the phrase "Cartago Delenda Est" ['Carthage must be destroyed']. and events in North Africa allowed that to happen.

Part of the endgame against Hannibal had involved detaching some of his allies from him, particularly his Numidian cavalry. the efforts started in Spain, and bore fruit at Zama, where the Numidians fought alongside the Romans. Now the Numidians, clients of Rome got involved in a war with another kingdom, but raided Carthaginian territory. Carthage, requested roman permission to war, but was denied. Carthage then responded against the Numidians with military action. Then, so did Rome.

the Third Punic War was basically the siege of Carthage. unlike Hannibal, the Romans brought the right equipment. But the Carthaginians, trapped in their city, and facing extermination fought on. But the result was a foregone conclusion. Rome took Carthage. Those not killed were sold into slavery. the city was torn down and razed [according to legend the Romans sowed the site with salt so nothing could grow there]. Carthage was history. Or was it?

Carthage had been what it was because of its harbor. It was a natural trading center. So, eventually, Rome rebuilt Carthage and settled it. And it again became a major trade center, and a great city, but not as great as Rome. Then, in the 4th century A.D. Carthage was seized by the Vandals under Gensaric [Gaeseric]. they built a navy, became pirates, and, eventually sacked rome. somewhere in the afterlife, Hannibal laughed. 

He considered himself a German. He served in a Bavarian infantry regiment if the Imperial German Army in World War I. He had lived in Munich for several years before the War. But he was born a subject of the Austro-Hungarian Empire on 20 APR 1889, within a stone's throw of the German Border, at Braunau am Inn. And his name was Adolf Hitler.

A failure at almost everything he turned his hand to, as a young man in Vienna; arrested in Munich, and sent back to Austria in 1913 for failing to register for the draft [he was rejected by the Austrian military on health grounds], one would think that Hitler would have been happy to forget any and all ties with the nation of his birth. One would be wrong.

While Hitler loathed the polyglot nation of the Empire, he valued the German part of it highly. As early as MEIN KAMPF, Hitler called for the return to the greater Germany of those Germans separated from the Fatherland by the Versailles Diaspora; and indeed of all Germans living under foreign rule in Europe[although later he threw the German speakers of the Italian Tyrol under Mussolini's bus]. And those Germans included the Austrians.

Austria itself, the Empire having been broken up into constituent polities under Wilson's 'self-determination, was ruled by the Fascist dictatorship [of sorts] of Dolfuss. And as early as 1934, an indigenous Nazi movement, supported by, coordinated by, and egged on by Berlin, sought to violently overthrow that government, assassinating Dolfuss in the process. The plot failed, in large part because Mussolini, at that time no friend to Hitler, sent troops to the Brenner Pass, and threatened military action against Germany. Many of the would be Putschists fled to Bavaria, where they stayed for the nonce, including Ernst Kaltenbrunner, future head of the RSHA. And having been stymied, Hitler pulled in his horns, and bided his time.

By 1936, Hitler was ready to begin the assemblage of the the Germans outside Germany's then current borders. First came the Rhineland, which while considered part of the Reich, was demilitarized, and had been occupied by foreign troops. It was done with nary a whisper of protest in the West, and in full violation of the Versailles Treaty. After a year's hiatus, Hitler moved against his next target, Austria.

At first he tried persuasion, gradually rachetting up the rhetoric, and the pressure. But negotiations were a failure. And the new Austrian Chancellor, Schussnigg, was capable of a battle plan of his own. Calling Hitler's bluff [as he believed it was], Schussnigg called for a plebiscite [one of Hitler's favorite tools] to vote on absorption into the Reich. Not sure such a plebiscite would go his way, hitler ordered the Wehrmacht in. And on March 12, 1938, the German Army and Waffen SS crossed the border, and began to occupy the country. The panzers were festooned with flowers, the troops receiving a widespread and rapturous welcome. Schussnigg was forced to resign, replaced by the Austrian Nazi, Artur Seyss- Inquart [hanged at Nuremburg], who then invited the already in -country Germans into the country.

Hitler entered Austria several hours later, escorted by the FUEHRERBEGLEITBATALLION, with its new commander, one Erwin Rommel. Hitler proceed to Linz, the home of his youth, visiting the graves of his parents, and then motored on to Vienna, now as conqueror. He had been preceded by Reichsfuehrer SS Heinrich Himmler, and his deputy, Reinhard Heydrich, who set the wheels of repression in motion. These included arrests, brutalization and humiliation of Vienna's Jews, and the establish of a Central Registry, for the expeditious processing of Jews wishing to emigrate, under Adolf Eichmann. the Luftwaffe had already flown into Austrian airfields.

Hitler was received [contrary to post war claims] with rapturous adulation by the Viennese, and indeed the Austrians. the Austrian Army was integrated into the Wehrmacht without missing a beat. the country was "Nazified" with terrifying speed.

The Germans profited by the Anschluss in other ways. The German Army's panzer divisions learned of the requirements for a road march, having suffered equipment breakdowns, and fuel shortages. Both issues would be dealt with. The SS took the first steps in streamlining, simplifying, an standardizing their mechanisms for dealing with the Jews of Europe. And Hitler took note of the failure by anyone [Mussolini had green lit the Anschluss in advance] in the west to object to his absorption of a foreign country.

Hitler would, later in the year, coerce Britain and France into giving him the western portion of Czechoslavakia, on the grounds the Sudeten Germans belonged in the Reich. It would be his last success. Driven now by his determination to go to war, he tried to force Poland to return East Pomerania and Danzig to the Reich at the same time as he extorted Memel from Lithuania. Poland refused. Hitler invaded. Britain and France, rather than back down yet again, declared war. But the fuse had been lit in March, 1938. In Austria.

 

My father was there. I remember seeing the fall of Saigon on  TV.

I was finishing up Law School when that happened. A lot of the ARVNs I served with got screwed when we left, and then wouldn't supply them with the arms, ammo and equipment we promised them. I was VERY depressed watching Saigon fall.

Rome had evolved as a Republic after banishing the last of its Etruscan kings, Tarquin the Proud. So anathema to the Romans was the thought of kings, that the proposal of one could bring a nasty end.

Rome opted for shared power: Two consuls, the Tribunes of the Plebs, Quaestors, and of course, the Roman Senate. And within those institutions, a system developed for the attaining of individual glory for the good of the state. The ciriculum honorum was the course Roman males followed to gain status, power and wealth. It involved serving as military tribunes in the legions, quaestors in the government, and eventual membership in the Senate. But it didn't stop there. Eventually the consuls almost all came from Senatorial ranks. But it didn't stop there. Senators vied for the consulship [there were two every year], and then for plum [usually military] assignments. Because Roman politics were individual, not party, operations.

By the 1st Century, B.C., Rome was failing. With the Marian Reforms, the army was professionalized, but the legions tended to follow their generals, not the Senate. Sulla had marched on Rome, made himself Dictator and proscribed his enemies, to either death, or banishment [one of the latter was a young man named Caius Iulius Caesar].More and more, Rome came to be dominated by military strong men [who, remember, were politicians], and combinations of such men who dominated the Senate.

One such combination that rose to power in mid-century was called the First Triumvirate [with hindsight]. It consisted of [then] Rome's greatest living genral, Gnaeus Pompeiius Magnus, Marcus Lucinius Crassus [the richest man in Rome], and the abovementioned Caesar, Pompey's father-in-law.

Pompey's power base was Spain, where he had raised the VIIth, VIIIth, and IXth legions. Crassus' was his wallet [despite some success in putting down the Spartacist revolt, Crassus was not known as a military man, which he would prove at Carrhae - see that thread]. Caesar could not match either of those attributes. While a more than passable orator, a skilled politician, and a solid junior officer and official, he was in serious debt, and out of step with the majority of the Senate, taking pro-
Pleb positions more likely than not.

Caesar's fortunes, and Rome's, changed when his consulship ended. Rome made use of former consuls by having them govern provinces as proconsuls. Caesar was made governor of Cisalpine Gaul, the southern part of Switzerland and Gaul. It was a highly strategic province, sitting astride both east-west and north-south trade routes. And then, in transalpine [free] Gaul, the Helvetians arrived from Switzerland, looking for land. Gallic tribes allied with Rome requested Caesar's aid. And at that moment, Caesar was drawn into Gaul, and history. He drove the Helvetians back. He then did the same to a German warlord, Ariovistus, who had settled in Gaul. All well and good. By fighting these battles, Caesar had protected Cisalpine Gaul, which was in his writ [He also showed military genius of a frightening order]. What he did next was not. Caesar proceeded over the next few years to invade, and conquer Gaul. Some claim he killed or enslaved over a million people. He added significantly to the land mass controlled by Rome. He paid off his debts, and made himself a rich man. And he was on his way to becoming the first man of Rome.But Caesar had made powerful enemies. Marcus Tullius Cicero called for his arrest. Pompey sided with Caesar's enemies [his wife, Caesar's daughter Julia had died in child birth, ending their alliance]. And the Senate ordered Caesar to Rome to face the charges.

Caesar came - with the XIII legion. By crossing the Rubicon river with troops, Caesar was in rebellion against the Republic. But Rome was about to learn what the Gauls already had, Caesar traveled at his own speed, with his own troops [his legions loved him].

When the proverbial smoke had cleared, Pompey was defeated and dead [killed in Egypt], and the rest of the opposition put down. Caesar was THE man in Rome, although he was merciful to his opponents. Caesar was made Dictator for Life [even Sulla hadn't done that]. He began planning expansive building projects, political and economic reform, and the inclusion of Gallic nobles from Cisalpine Gaul into the Senate. And a secret opposition began making plans.

the common argument for the assassins was that they feared Caesar was going to make himself King. Personally, I don't think so. He had the power. he didn't need the title. What I believe is the reason for the plot is much simpler. Caesar had bottlenecked the Cursus Honorum for other Senators. In effect, he had removed the Senate from a ruling body to a consultive one. The result was the same.

On 15 MARCH 44 B.C. Caesar, despite signs and portents, attended a meeting of the Senate held in Pompey's Theater [the Senate was undergoing repairs. In a cleverly crafted ambush, Caesar was set upon by a group of dissidents led by Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus, both of whom had been pardoned by Caesar. These self-proclaimed 'Liberators' then inflicted some 23 stab wounds, one of which was fatal, on a man defending himself with a writing stylus. Caesar was dead.

But the end result was the same. Two civil wars followed. In the first, Brutus, Cassius and their cohorts were defeated and were either killed or committed suicide [another victim-of Mark Antony-was Cicero]by an alliance of Octavian [later Augustus] Caesar and Mark Antony. A second between Octavian and Antony and Cleopatra, left Octavian as the sole master of the Roman world, and 'First Among Equals' in a thoroughly cowed and broken roman Senate.

It is often shrugged off as unfinished business that was finished, the second half of the notorious Munich Pact. But, in fact it was much more than that, and much more important than Munich.

Adolf Hitler believed that he would die at age 50, probably of cancer, because his mother had. He also believed that Germany's future lay in the East, and would require war to accomplish that future. Hitler was going to be 50 on April 20th, 1939. So, in his view, he had much to do, and little time to do it.

It started off well. The Rhineland was re-occupied without a shot being fired. Austria was absorbed to public adulation, and nary a peep from the Western Allies. But Hitler had already told his service chiefs he wanted to be ready for war BEFORE the Anschluss. And the country he wanted to go to war with was Czechoslovakia.

It was a hard nut to crack for the Wehrmacht. Western Czechoslovakia had  a miniature version of the Maginot Line [the Germans would use it to prep for the invasion of France. the Czechs had an exceptional defense industry, including the Skoda Works [Rommel's 7th Panzer Division was equipped primarily with Czech T-38 tanks during the invasion of France]. So when Neville Chamberklain came calling, Hitler 'let' himself be talked into the Munich Pact. He got the Sudetenland, mostly German, which included the defense lines, and the Skoda works, in return for a pledge of no more territorial demands.

That didn't last long. The President of Czechoslavakia, was summoned to the Berghof, and was told to surrender his country or be invaded. He may have had a heart attack or stress attack during the meeting. But the die was cast. On 15 NOV 1939, the German Army marched into, and occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia [Slovakia, which had been colluding with the Germans under Father Tiso was granted 'independence']. Hitler arrived Prague that evening. It was a fait accompli.

But it was more than that. The rump of Czechoslovakia seized by Hitler was the first piece of real estate he had seized without claiming he was doing so to return Germans to the Reich. that had been accomplished at Munich. So aside from proof that Hitler's word couldn't be trusted, Czechoslovakia pulled the wool from Britan and France's eyes. It was a land grab, plain and simple. That led to a guarantee of Poland's independence. And the stiffening [if needed] of Poland's spine when Hitler demanded the return of the Polish Corridor [formerly Eastern Pomerania]. And that led to World War II.

So Hitler got his war. Not where he wanted it. Not before his 50th birthday. In fact, Hitler would die shortly after his 56th birthday. Of self-inflicted lead poisoning.

By March, 1945, the handwriting was on the wall for the Third Reich. The western Allies were on German soil. The Soviets were driving in from all points to the East. and in the Fuehrerbunker, Adolf Hitler contemplated the end. And then he ordered Albrecht Speer, his Armaments Minister, to report to him for new orders.

Those orders comprised what is popularly called the 'NERO' decree. It was both terrifyingly simple and all encompassing in scope. Hitler ordered Speer to oversee the wholesale destruction of the German infrastructure. Speer, working through the Gauleiters and the Army was to destroy every power station, dam, railroad track and yard, road, industrial complex, mine, water purification complex, petroleum source and refinery, every armaments producer and depot; in short every economic means for Germany's survival and rebirth after the war.

Why? Hitler was a social Darwinist to the core. And he believed that if Germany had failed to conquer, it deserved oblivion, and so did its people and military, who, in his view, had failed him [not the other way around].

According to Speer [a suspect witness if ever there was one], he, singlehandedly managed to foil Hitler, by convincing the generals and the Gauleiters [at least most of them], from carrying out hitler's orders. In all likelihood, a great number were ignoring the order on their own.

The result was Germany was spared the destruction envisaged [which, interestingly, closely tracked Sec/ Treasury Morgenthau's plan for the pastoralization of post-war Germany]. But Hitler called Speer on the rug for his disobedience. Surprisingly, Hitler took no action against him,; instead  trying to get Speer to state that Speer believed the war could be won. Hitler failed even in that, speer only committing to his belief in the Fuehrer. Hitler settled for that. And soon the course of the war took the destruction by national suicide out of Hitler's hands. Except his own suicide on April 30th, some six weeks later. 

  Many got screwed.

I just love your knowledge of history PzLdr!!!

The problem was twofold. first the official name of the Nazi  Party WAS "National SOCIALIST German workers Party". And, second, a sizable contingent of the party [more earlier than later] believed in the "Socialist" part. Among the early adherents, Paul Joseph Goebbels, later Reichsminister of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment, Gregor Strasser, head of the Party organization, and his brother, and sundry others.

But by the time of the seizure of power on January, 1933, most of those folks had either come over [Goebbels], resigned from office [Strasser], fled the country [Otto Strasser], or laid low. Except for the rowdies of the STURMABTEILUNG, the SA, Hitler's 'Storm Troopers', the Brownshirts.

By early 1934, there were 4 1/2 million of them. In sheer numbers they swamped the professional army. And with the chancellorship of Adolf Hitler, their main reason for existence, terrorizing political opponents and rioting in the streets, had ended. A stint as auxiliary police pursuant to a Goering decree had ended, in part because of the uncontrollable violence of the Storm Troopers in carrying out their duties. So what to do with them?

Their leadership had a clear idea of what to do. Their leader, SA Chief of Staff Ernst Roehm called for a second revolution, to fufill the 'Socialist' in 'National Socialist'. He proposed that the SA take over policing Germany, and then proposed that the SA become the principal bearer of arms for the Reich, a Army/ militia, if you will, eclipsing the German Army. He also, privately, railed against Hitler, referring to him as the 'Private', and making veiled threats to see Hitler off if the SA was denied what he, and they regarded as their just rewards for getting Hitler the Chancellorship. Trouble was brewing.

At first Hitler tried to win Roehm and the SA over. He lavishly praised them in public. He made Roehm a Minister without portfolio in the Cabinet. He wrote flattering letters. To no avail.

He then tried to coopt Roehm. At a meeting with Roehm and the Service Chiefs, Hitler made it plain that the SA would NEVER supplant the Army, and that they, rather than the Army would be responsible for preliminary military training for German youth, and border security. Roehm acquiesced, but never intended to honor his word.

The next step was public and unequivocal warnings to the SA to cease their antagonism. Hitler spoke. so, pointedly, did the Deputy Fuehrer, Rudolf Hess. And Roehm and the boys should have listened, because the number of enemies they had made was formidable, growing, and growing united in the belief that something had to be done.

There was the Army. The generals despised the SA, everything it stood for, and its leadership, partly because they regarded them as low class savages, and partly because they saw them as morally corrupt [Homosexuality was rife in the leadership Corps of the SA, up to and including Roehm].

There was Goering. Hermann Goering saw himself, not Roehm, as the next commander of the German Armed Forces. And Goering feared the large numbers of SA formations Roehm commanded.

There was the Nazi Party leadership. They were aware of the adverse effect the SA-Hitler demarche was having on popular support. They also remembered tentative talks Roehm had had with then chancellor Von Schleicher in 1932 without Hitler's blessing.

And finally, and most dangerous of all, there were Heinrich Himmler, Reichsfuehrer SS and his right hand man, Reinhard Heydrich. The SS was subordinate to the SA, a situation Himmler found intolerable. And while Roehm had been shooting off his mouth, Himmler had been acquiring police forces. In fact acquiring all the police forces in Germany, but three. Of the three, the largest was the Prussian State Police, which was under Goering's control, and included the Goering creation, the Gestapo.

Roehm should have noted that when Goering turned the Prussian police and Gestapo over to Himmler in early 1934 [Heydrich took over the Gestapo], two natural enemies had made a truce. He didn't.

As 1934 proceeded, Himmler, Heydrich and the Army began fabricating rumors that the SA was planning a putsch. Senior members of the SA, especially Victor Lutz, began reporting Roehm's more inflammatory statements to Hitler, who ordered the SA on leave for the month of July. Roehm went to Bad Wiesee to take the 'cure'. Hitler then ordered a gathering of the senior SA leaders for a meeting. Meanwhile, in Berlin, plans and suspect lists proceeded apace.

Near the end of June, Hitler, Goebbels, Goering and Sepp Dietrich and some of the Leibstandarte SS flew to Essen for the wedding of Gauleiter Josef Terboven [a suicide in Norway, 1945]. From there, Hitler flew during the night of June 29-30th to Bavaria with Goebbels and Dietrich while Goering returned to Berlin. It was Goebbels who phoned Goering , Himmler and Heydrich with the code word 'Kalibri' , which in turn triggered the Berlin portion of the Night of the Long Knives.

Hitler arrived at the hotel where Roehm and some of the senior SA leadership were staying with two policemen and Dietrich close behind. Hitler burst into the room of SA Obergruppenfuehrer Edmund Heines first, finding him in bed with an 18 year old SA man. Heines was dragged outside, and later shot. Hitler then arrested Roehm, and had him hauled off to Stadelhelm prison, where he joined several other SA leaders previously arrested, and others who had been heading for Bad Wiesee per their orders, and who were intercepted on the way. Hitler then ordered Dietrich to form a firing squad, and the SA leadership was shot in batches [except Roehm].

In Berlin, Heydrich sent out SS details to kill those approved for execution by Goering and Himmler. SA leaders went down like ten pins, but the Nazis didn't stop there. Gregor Strasser was killed in Gestapo headquarters. Von Schleicher was killed in his home, along with his wife, who died trying to protect him. So were two of Franz von Papen's assistants.

Nor was the purge limited to the SA, or to Berlin. Von Kahr, who had opposed the Beerhall Putsch in 1923 was hacked to death with a pickaxe near Dachau. Old political opponents were killed. SA Gruppenfuehrer Karl Ernst was dragged off the cruise ship he was going on for his honeymoon, and executed.

And still, Roehm lived. But finally, Hitler, who had allowed Roehm to use the 'Du' form of address to him in the past was persuaded that Roehm had to go. At the prison, a warder walked into roehm's cell with a newspaper describing the purge, and a pistol with a single bullet. He urged Roehm to do the right thing. Roehm didn't. Ten minutes later SS Gruppenfuehrer Theodor Eicke, Commandant of Dachau and his aide walked into the cell and emptied two handguns into Roehm. The Night of the Long Knives was over. In his speech justifying the action, Hitler admitted to some 90 killed [the true toll was probably double that]. Most Germans approved of the action.

So who won? The big winners were the SS. In less than a month, Hitler would grant them independence from the SA, and make Himmler directly responsible to him alone. It was the start of the SS state within a state that would see Himmler's tentacles reach into every segment of German Society. Another winner was Hitler. He actually solidified his popularity with the German people.

Losers? The SA, of course. Within a couple of years they had shrunk to less than half  of their pre-purge membership, and had no access to power. But also the German Army was a big loser. Having supplied trucks and weapons to the SS, they had colluded in the murders. And while they had seen the SA eliminated as a rival, they replaced it with a far more dangerous enemy, the SS, which, by 1945, would have almost a million men under arms in its military formations, the Waffen SS.

  

1951: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted for spying for, and passing nuclear secrets to, the U.S.S.R. Julius had headed an industrial spy ring out of Ft. Monmouth N.J, where he worked as a civilian contractor for the U.S Army [one of his NKVD agent names was "Engineer"]. They became involved in nuclear espionage when Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, was assigned, as an Army EM, to Los Alamos as a machinist. At the importuning of his sister and brother-in-law, he provided diagrams of the components he worked on. Julius and his efforts initially come to light through the Venona decryption program. The Rosenbergs are executed in June, 1951.

1971: Second Lieutenant William Calley is convicted of the murder of 22 Vietnamese in the "My Lai Massacre. Calley will serve three years in house arrest. He will be the only officer convicted over the affair, despite efforts by anti-war opponents to have the "Yamash*ta Rule" applied up the chain of command all the way to General William Westmoreland.

1973: The last U.S troops are withdrawn from the republic of Viet Nam. With Nixon fatally wounded by Watergate, the betrayal of the South Vietnamese by the cowards of the U.S Congress, led by the usual suspects [Democrats] proceeds apace.

She started life as a German freighter, the GOLDENFELS. She was commanded by a Captain who was part Jewish, who was awarded one of only three Samurai swords presented to foreigners by Emperor Hirohito and who stayed at sea for over a year. And she sank more tonnage than any other surface ship in the Kriegsmarine [the ship that came closest was the pocket battleship ADMIRAL SCHEER]. Her name was 'ATLANTIS'.

ATLANTIS was part of a plan by Admiral Raeder to accomplish two goals, first to attack British shipping, and second, to force the dispersal of Allied warships to counter her operations. But unlike the pocket battleships[ADMIRAL GRAF SPEE AND DEUTSCHLAND]. ATLANTIS and her sisters [THOR, PINGUIN, KORMORANT] were converted merchant ships. They were principally armed with hidden 5.9" guns, which were the standard primary weapons on German destroyers, and secondary armament on German capital ships. They were also the functional equivalent of the main armament on British light cruisers. They were also armed with mines, torpedoes, machineguns, radio jamming equipment and scout planes. And all of it was hidden, or camouflaged.

In addition to her armament, ATLANTIS was fitted out with secure holding cells for captured merchant seamen, a variety of foreign flags, and paints and building materials to alter her appearance.

Escorted by a Soviet icebreaker, ATLANTIS broke out disguised as a Swedish merchantman. By the time she reached her operational area [the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean], she was a Japanese freighter.

During the next 18 months, ATLANTIS sank or captured some 22 ships, worth 146,000 tons, give or take. She also threw British   naval operations into panic. Periodically, ATLANTIS, if she captured a ship, would offload her prisoners onto it, and send it back, under a prize crew to German held Europe.

Rogge 'won' his Samurai sword with one of his captures. Found in a ship's safe was a top secret British study of their ability to defend Malaya and Singapore [it was BRUTALLY honest about the deficiencies of British plans, equipment, etc.]The study was turned over to the Japanese, and they used it to good result.

The jig came up on November 22, 1941. ATLANTIS Was found and engaged by H.M.S DEVONSHIRE, a heavy cruiser. In the one-sided battle [the chief weakness of the armed auxiliary cruiser was its lack of any armor plating at all] ATLANTIS was sunk. But Rogge and many of his crew were rescued by U-boats, and eventually found their way back to the Reich, where Rogge was awarded the Knight's Cross by Hitler.

Rogge went on, after the war, to serve in the West German Navy and NATO. And ATLANTIS is still remembered as the best commerce raider, EVER.

Hobbled by incompetent subordinates [read: Benjamin Butler], U.S Grant was unable to achieve at Petersburg, the turning movement he had sought versus Robert E. Lee and the Army of northern Virginia for the entire 1864 campaigning season. and having failed to turn Lee, Grant was forced to settle into trench warfare and siege outside Petersburg throughout the winter of 1864-1865, and early Spring of 1865. But as the weather warmed, Grant became active again, and he cast his eyes on a place on the extreme Confederate right called Five Forks.

Five forks was important for one reason, the last railroad line controlled by the confederacy capable of supplying Lee's Army. Lee told the rebel commanding general, George Pickett [yes, THAT Pickett], that the area was to be held at all costs. Grant told his commander, MG Philip Sheridan to take it. And in addition to Sheridan's cavalry Corps, he gave him gouvenor Warren's Vth Corps to accomplish that task.

On March 31st, there were preliminary battles at Dinwiddie Court house,in which Pickett held Sheridan, but the latter's losses were minimal, and White Oak Road, where the Vth Corps pushed back rebel troops.

Vth Corps began arriving at Sheridan's position around 10:00 PM on the 31st. As a result Pickett pulled back to a defensive line some 6 or more miles to the rear. And then he waited.

On April 1st, nothing, initially seemed to go right for Sheridan. Vth Corps took too long to deploy, and some of its units attacked , when they did attack, into empty space. But by doing so, they rolled up Pickett's right.

The attack itself started late, in the afternoon. That fact had a significant result on the forthcoming battle. Pickett, and his senior commanders believed Sheridan would not attack until the 2nd. So Pickett went to a shad bake with  his cavalry commander, Fitzhugh Lee, and neglected to inform his subordinates of either his location or plans. Additionally, due to a terrain anomaly, Pickett did not hear the sounds of gunfire that began around 1:00 P.M, initiating the battle.

Sheridan opened with an attack by dismounted cavalry from Devin's and Custer's divisions. Warren took over two hours to straighten his formations and attack, so the battle was fought mainly in the late afternoon.

The result? Pickett's line was broken, the Union got control of the last rebel railroad on the Petersburg front, Lee was forced to abandon the Petersburg works  and began the retreat that ended at Appomattox Court House. Jefferson Davis and his cabinet were forced to flee Richmond and begin the hajira that ended with Davis' capture by Union general James Wilson's cavalry.

And Pickett and Sheridan? Lee relieved Pickett of command and stated a desire never to see him in his Army again. Sheridan took up the pursuit of Lee from his southern flank, captured a third of his Army at Sailor's Creek [courtesy of Custer], got ahead of him by April 8th, and cut him off at Appomattox Court house. It was during that pursuit that Sheridan's displeasure with Warren led to the latter's relief. Warren, one of the heroes of Day 2 at Gettysburg spent the rest of his life trying to clear his name. Sheridan spent the rest of his life rising to command of the U.S. Army after William T. Sherman's retirement.

Just got thru watching this Night of The LOng Knives on TV. Enjoyed it more after reading about it. Thanks PzLdr

His nickname in Japanese was "8 cents", a pun on the cost of a manicure for Geisha, since, as a junior officer, he'd lost two fingers on his left hand at Tshuhima, fighting the Russians with Admiral Togo, and a manicure for ten fingers was ten cents. He'd spent time in the United States, attached to the Japanese Embassy, attending Harvard, traveling the country and playing poker. He learned to fly in his middle years, because, as the major advocate of naval air power in Japan, he believed he should. He attended at least one of the Naval Conferences in the 20s and early 30s. He opposed war with the United States as the Deputy Naval Minister to the point that he was made commander of the combined Fleet to get him out of Tokyo and away from potential assassination. And he planned the attack on Pearl Harbor. His name was Isoroku Yamamoto. And he was born on this day in 1884 to an impoverished Samurai family on northern Japan [as was Army General Hideki Tojo].

Yamamoto was not overly upset with the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, not for what it banned, but for what it didn't, specifically aircraft carriers, torpedoes, cruisers and destroyers. The great Tokyo earthquake fortuitously damaged, beyond repair, the hull for the new battlecruiser AMAGI, and a battleship. But the quake spared the hull of AKAGI, and the newly laid battleship KAGA. Under the treaty terms, and with the consent of the U.S and Great Britain, Japan was allowed to complete both hulls as aircraft carriers. Japan's Carrier Division 1 was born.

Yamamoto rose steadily through the Imperial Japanese Navy's ranks, commanding the Naval air establishment, captaining AKAGI, and overseeing the development of the then best naval air force in the world. And he did it with several 'super' weapons, particularly, the type 91 torpedo, and the Mitsubishi "Zero" fighter [named for the year in the Emperor's reign it was developed. In addition, he had two dedicated aircraft the equal to, or better than any other, the Daichi 'Val' dive bomber, and the Nakijima 'Kate, high altitude/ torpedo bomber.

As the '30s progressed, Japan drifted toward war, impelled by a government increasingly dominated by militarists, particularly in the Army, and as the 30s blended into the '40s, Japanese expansion, by war or coercion in China and Indochina, coupled with an increasingly hostile and belligerent U.S. foreign policy. And while Yamamoto opposed war [he flat out told anyone who would listen that Japan couldn't win against the U.S.], he planned for, as any good officer would.

And inspired by the British carrier assault on Taranto, Italy, he came up with the attack on Pearl Harbor. Six of Japan's principal carriers, AKAGI, KAGA, SORYU, HIRYU, SHOKAKU AND ZUIKAKU crossed the northern Pacific and struck the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor, while other Japanese naval units spearheaded south, leading to invasions of Malaya, the Philippines,  Indonesia and Burma. That was followed by a carrier raid into the Indian Ocean that went as far as [now] Sri Lanka, and air raids on northern Australia.

Yamamoto had stated that he would run wild for six months, but that after that all bets would be off. And in Spring, and summer 1942, he proved eerily  prophetic. First, the Doolittle Raid struck Japan [they bombed four cities, not just Tokyo]. Then, the Battle of the Coral Sea followed. While a Japanese tactical win [they sunk one U.S carrier, and heavily damaged another - YORKTOWN, for the loss of the light carrier SHOHO], they lost heavily from the aircrews of ZUIKAKU, and SHOKAKU was heavily damaged. And it was a strategic defeat for the Japanese. They were forced to withdraw.

And then came Yamamoto's Waterloo, the battle of Midway [see the Midway thread in the archive]Based on an overly complex plan, with far too many moving, non-supporting parts, it was an epic failure [the fact we could read the Japanese Naval code didn't hurt, either]. By the end of the day, four of Japan's principal carriers, AKAGI, KAGA, SORYU and HIRYU had been sunk, Japan's leading carrier admiral, Tamon Yamaguchi, was dead [went down with the ship]and over 200 of Japan's best aircrews were lost. Almost 6 months to the day from Pearl Harbor, Japan had lost the initiative. the days of running wild were over.

Yamamoto oversaw the increasingly futile naval operations supporting the Japanese Army on Guadalcanal. While there were successes, there were also failures, and both Japanese naval, and naval air power continued to be bled. Eventually Yamamoto called off the Japanese efforts to re-take the island, and oversaw the rescue of the remaining troops on the island.

Isoroku Yamamoto was killed by U.S. Army P-38 aircraft while on an inspection tour of Japanese islands in the South Pacific in 1943. They knew where he'd be, and were waiting for him [the codes, again]. He was the only foreign leader, military or civilian, the U.S. assassinated, or attempted to assassinate in World War II.   

It was a two day battle with two names. The Union called it Pittsburgh Landing, after the geographic location it was fought on; the South referred to it as 'Shiloh', after a small church in the immediate area. The South's designation stuck.

Shiloh started as part of Union general Henry Halleck's plans to march on Corinth, Mississippi. His field army comprised one force under U.S. Grant, and a second Army under don Carlos Buell. Grant, who camped around Pittsburgh Landing on the Tennessee River, expected no trouble. Neither did one of his subordinate division commanders, BG William T. Sherman, whose dispositions were lax, at best.

But trouble, in the form of the Confederate Army of Mississippi, was coming. Commanded by the second senior General in the Confederate Army, Albert Sidney Johnston and with GEN P.G.T. Beauregard as his deputy, the Army had been formed by various Confederate formations withdrawn from Tennessee and other areas after Grant's Henry and Donaldson camapigns had levered them out of position.

Johnston had had a great reputation in the antebellum Army. He had led the Mormon expedition in the 1850s. And Jefferson Davis was a 'groupie'. Beauregard was the 'hero' of Fort Sumter. He had performed creditably at Bull Run. But like George B. McClellan and Isoroku Yamamoto, his battle plans tended to be overly complex. And like other Southern generals [Joseph E. Johnson comes to mind], he was overly sensitive to his rank, and his date of rank in the Rebel Army. Jefferson Davis DID NOT like him.

Johnston's plan was fairly straight forward. March north from Corinth, achieve surprise, and drive into the Union forces at Shiloh, driving them west, away from the river, and reinforcements. And initially, except for one serious hiccup [which swung the battle], and one leg wound, he succeeded.

Despite reports from outlying pickets and units that something was up, both Grant and Sherman continued to ignore the possibility that Johnston was [a] in the vicinity, and attacking them. They were soon disabused of their folly.

The Rebels drove into the Union positions like a tidal wave. And since the Union troops were encamped more for bivouac than battle, they were driven back. The rebel attack slowed, only briefly while confederate troops, who had marched since before daylight, stopped to seize Union breakfasts, and to plunder Union tents. That delay, while slight, allowed the hiccup. the Union troops withdrew not west, but northeast, toward Pittsburgh Landing. They also withdraw, on their right front into a sunken  road that became known as the "Hornet's Nest. Here Sherman rallied the troops, and they continued to beat off Confederate attacks, with heavy loses to both sides.

Enter the leg wound. While personally leading his troops in the attack, Johnston was hit in the leg, below his boot top. As the fighting continued he fell from his horse. When the bot was removed, it was full of blood. An artery had been severed. Johnston was dead.

Beauregard assumed command, but the fighting died down. Believing [probably correctly] that his men were exhausted, he ordered them to stand down, and to prepare to resume the attack the next day. It was a mistake of epic proportions.

During the night, Grant was reinforced by three of his own widespread divisions, and don Carlos Buell's Army of the Ohio. The next morning, Grant stole the march on Beauregard, and attacked first. It was a route of epic proportions. Beauregard retreated all the way back to Corinth. But for Halleck's orders, Grant would have been there too.

Shiloh had several profound after effects. Davis, ever sensitive, decided Beauregard was trying to take credit from, and eclipse Johnston. His animosity hardened. Beauregard never held a significant command for the rest of the war. Grant and Sherman, despite their initial failures redeemed themselves to the point that they would dominate first the Union's western theater, and eventually the whole Union war effort. And finally, Shiloh was the wakeup call to both sections of the country, that it was going to be a long, very bloody war. Shiloh represented the largest loss of life in U,S history up to that point. It would, of course, be surpassed the following year by Chancellorsville, and then Gettysburg. But it was notice, writ large of what was to come. Quite an association for a little woodland church.

She was first in a class of three, but the last to survive. She was undergoing sea trials off Japan on the day Pearl Harbor was attacked, and spent most of the war at anchor near Malaya. She was YAMATO, which along with her sister ship, MUSASHI, was the biggest battleship ever built [the third hull, SHINANO, was converted to an aircraft carrier, and sunk by U.S.S. ARCHERFISH on her first voyage].

The YAMATO class' design and construction was based on a geographic reality, the Panama Canal. Working from the premise that the Canal would factor into the size of U.S. battleship construction [particularly, their beam], the Japanese decided to go bigger. And they did. In spades.

YAMATO and MUSASHI weighed some 72,000 tons each [roughly 33% larger than BISMARCK and TIRPITZ]. Their main armament consisted of nine 18.1" guns. Their secondary, comprised of 6.1" and 5" guns, was equally impressive, and their speed was  more than acceptable [@ 28 knots]. But they were, in the eyes of the commander of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, 'white elephants', which he proved himself, at Midway.

Yamamoto commanded both the operation, and the bulk of the battleships from the main battle fleet that followed 300 miles behind the KIDO BUTAI [First Air Fleet]. Yet when the four carriers of the First Air Fleet were sunk, Yamamoto did not dare try to engage the U.S. carriers with his battleships [He was too far away to offer immediate support in any case]. Instead, after some dithering, he withdrew.

YAMATO spent much of late 1942-1943 at Truk, and other Japanese naval bases. She was present at the Battle of the Philippines Sea, a/k/a "The Great Marianas Turkey Shoot", but saw no combat. And she spent increasing time off Malaya and Indonesia, as did most of the surface fleet, because to paraphrase Willy Sutton, 'that was where the oil was'.

YAMATO WAS involved in the largest Naval battle of World War II, if not history, the Battle of Leyte Gulf. With a plan as complicated as a Swiss watch [it WAS the Japanese, after all], the Imperial Navy sent three columns against the U.S. Navy, and the landings on Leyte Island in the Philippines. Both YAMATO and MUSASHI sailed with the central column. A second force, built around older battleships approached the southern passage through the archipelago at Surigao Strait. A third column, comprised of Japan's remaining carriers sailed down from the north. That column was a decoy, bait designed to lure Halsey's fleet away from covering the landings [By then the Japanese had few proficient pilots left].

The operation seemed doomed from the start. MUSASHI was engaged by U.S. aircraft and sunk, as were at least six cruisers, including Kurita's flagship, IMS ATAGO. So Admiral Kurita withdrew [but later reversed course], and traversed the San Bernadino Strait that night. And it appeared that, just maybe the Gods of War chose to smile on Japan.

Because Halsey had taken the bait, and Third Fleet was steaming north at high speed to nail the carriers. And due to inmprecise communications, the U.S. Seventh Fleet, had sailed south to Surigao, leaving the landing beaches covered by some escort carriers and some destroyers and destroyer escorts. It had the potential for a massacre.

Kurita debauched from San Bernadino Strait with not only YAMATO, but the battleship KONGO, and several heavy and light cruisers. And although YAMATO scored several hits with her guns, Kurita's attack order  [individual engagement], plus a turn to avoid torpedoes, left YAMATO out of most of the battle, with KONGO doing the heavy lifting. And the American defense led Kurita to believe he was engaging Halsey's full strength. He withdrew.

By 1944, Japan was in bad straits. American troops had landed on Okinawa. Japan had been reduced to using her remaining airpower [land based]in suicide attacks on American ships [the Special Volunteer Corps, or as we called them, 'Kamikaze']. And the Japanese Navy decided that a grand, suicidal gesture was required from them. And that gesture was YAMATO and several escorts [the light cruiser YAHAGI and some eight destroyers]. She was ordered to Okinawa, where she was to beach herself and use her guns to support the Japanese Army. She was provided with only enough fuel for a one-way trip.

YAMATO was spotted on April 6th off the south coast of Japan, and shadowed by submarine. The next day she was attacked by waves of several hundred torpedo and dive bombers. A sea of flames, she rolled over and sank, with an explosion heard over 100 miles away, and a column of some several hundred feet high. YAMATO was gone.

And what had she accomplished in her 'life'? Very little. One could argue she was the perfection of the battleship [a better argument can be made for the IOWA class]. But in a country as resource poor as Japan, she was a waste of material that could have been put to much better use, elsewhere, say in aircraft carriers and aircraft. She represented the bankrupt Japanese naval philosophy of "the decisive battle", that guided all Japanese naval thought from Tushima on. The battle that was supposed to be fought near Japan. Between battleships. which Japan would win. Which never happened.
The nearest equivalent to YAMATO was TIRPITZ. But at least, just by existing, Tirpitz tied down substantial assets of both the Royal Navy and RAF. YAMATO tied down nothing. If she appeared, the Americans were more than happy to engage her. But concern for her was not a major component of U.S. naval strategy. And the only time she really became to focus of their attention was April6-7, 1945. When they sunk her.

1814: Napoleon Bonaparte, emperor of the French is exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba after his abdication.

Napoleon had been forced to abdicate after fighting a brilliant defensive campaign IN France against a coalition of Russian, Prussian, Austrian, Swedish and other European troops to the east of Paris, while Wellington invaded France from Spain. The key moment came when Napoleon's Marshals refused to fight anymore.

Napoleon is allowed to keep his title, and take 600 of the Imperial Guard to Elba as his 'army'. His exile will last less than a year. Believing, probably rightly, that Louis XVIII is planning his assassination, Bonaparte slips an English naval patrol and lands in southern France, triggering the 100 Days that will culminate in Waterloo, his surrender to the English, and permanent exile to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic. There Napoleon will be treated as a captured general [with all the honors], overseen by a British garrison. He will be accompanied by a household of volunteers, but no troops. He will die there in 1821.

1951: Douglas MacArthur is relieved of command in the Far East.

General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, overall commander of U.N. forces in Korea is relieved of command by President Harry Truman. MacArthur, who had assumed command of first the U.S., and then the U.N. response to North Korea's invasion of South Korea in June of 1950, had become involved in a more and more contentious relationship with his commander in chief, Harry Truman.

At first everything had been fine. MacArthur's troops [8th Army] stopped the NKPA on the Pusan perimeter in the southeast corner of South Korea. And while that was going on MacArthur led an amphibious force of U.S marines in the amphibious assault at Inchon, and a drive on Seoul well behind the NKPA lines. Coupled with a breakout offensive by 8th Army, it led to the disintegration of the NKPA, which then fled north as fast as it could run. So far, all well and good. The NKPA had been driven out of the South; the Republic of Korea was saved.

But then MacArthur decided to reunite the peninsula under South Korean President Syngmon Rhee. The U,N., and Truman went along. At this point things began to go south.

First, the Red Chinese of Mao Tze Dung threatened to intervene if U.N. forces crossed the 38th parallel. then MacArthur split his forces, sending the 8th Army up the western side of the peninsula, while detaching the newly created Xth Corps under his chief of staff, and sycophant [a job requirement for MacArthur's staff] Ned Almond. the reason? MacArthur wanted to do an amphibious invasion on the EAST coast of North Korea at Wonsan [By the time Xth Corps arrived, the port had been seized by South Korean troops marching overland].

Result? MacArthur had the two major components of his army separated by highly rugged terrain, unable to support each other, and about to be attacked by close to a half million Chinese troops MacArthur knew nothing about.

It started with a Chinese spoiling attack against U.S. cavalry and ROK infantry troops. They hit hard, but melted back into the hills. MacArthur, meanwhile, drove on toward the Yalu River, the border with China. And then the axe fell. Major Chinese attacks drove the 8th Army south. Both Pyongyang and Seoul would be lost. Xth Corps troops [Marines and U.S. Army] were almost surrounded around the Chosin reservoir, and driven, in abominable weather toward Wonsan.

And then, a second, non-Communist front opened between MacArthur and Truman and the U.S. government, as well as the U.S' U.N allies.

MacArthur never took defeat well [it's not a good idea to get in the way of a 'historical impulse'. Just ask Generals Homma and Yamash*ta]. And he was getting his ass kicked. Truman, meanwhile, wondered how MacArthur could have been so wrong about the Chinese [first their mere presence, then their numbers], and so lax in his dispositions, intelligence and recon.

MacArthur's response was to escalate. to that end, he sought to involve the Nationalists in Taiwan in either an invasion of Red China, or in Korea itself, the denial of Chinese Manchuria as a safe haven for enemy air, logistics and reinforcements, and the use of nuclear weapons against the Chinese. All of these issues had political overtones , to say the least. And when Truman bridled, and cautioned MacArthur about getting involved in politics, MacArthur doubled down, using a back channel to Republicans in house of Representatives, to get his position aired and supported. It was too much for Truman. After consultation with the Chairman of the JCS, General of the Army Omar Bradley, Truman relieved MacArthur of his command [The relief itself was handled badly. MacArthur first learned about it from a radio news report]. MacArthur returned to the U.S. for a series of parades, an address to Congress, and then obscurity. Truman lost the election of 1952 to a general. Just not MacArthur. He had been beaten for the GOP nomination by a former subordinate, Dwight D. Eisenhower.

Truman was right to can MacArthur.

Korea remains a problem today, particularly with flat head running around in North Korea.  For the first time, I heard mentioned today the possible reunification of Korea.  The only way that happens will be with flat head taken out and China realizing it is in their interest to unify Korea.  Frankly, because of proximity, I believe it would be in China's economic interest to unify Korea.  Korea would become a strong market for China, much like the USA today.

But are they prepared to take out flat head to unify Korea?  I think not.

And Trump, if he honestly thinks he can run about using the military to solve problems like North Korea, he is in for a rude awakening.  China will not sit back and let their puppet get attacked by the USA.  Not happening.

1861: The shelling of Fort Sumter

It became known in the south as "The War of Northern Aggression", which is a bit rich. Because on this date, in 1861, the newly formed Confederate states of America initiated hostilities against the United States at Charleston, South Carolina.

With Lincoln's election, Southern states, spearheaded by South Carolina, began passing ordinances of Secession, and leaving the Union to form their own government, the Confederate States of America. By April, 1861, with several notable exceptions, including Virginia, most of the South, including all of the Deep  South, had seceded and formed their own government. One of the first issues facing the new provisional government was what to do with U.S. government property, specifically, armories, and coastal forts. In some cases [Gen. Twigg in Texas, for example] Union officers turned coat and surrendered Union installations, weapons, etc. In others, Union commanders refused to turn the property over.

One such case was Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The fort's commander, Major Robert Anderson was, by birth, a Southerner. But he remained loyal to the Federal government, and refused to surrender his fort to Southern interests.

At first, the Confederates didn't push the issue, even selling foodstuffs and provender to the Union troops. But attitudes began to harden, and Jefferson Davis, in the provisional capitol of Montgomery, Alabama, began to push for action. The trigger was a Union supply ship sent by Lincoln to re-supply Sumter. Davis ordered the fort taken. And in the early dawn hours of April 12th, 1861, newly minted Confederate general P.G.T. Beauregard did just that. The artillery bombardment was sustained, damaged the fort, and caused some casualties, Anderson among them. But the casualties were light, and honor having been satisfied, Anderson struck his colors. the fort was evacuated, and the Union troops were allowed to leave [Beauregard had been a student of Anderson at West Point]. But from tiny acorns, mighty oaks grow. Having had Union property clearly attacked, Lincoln called for 90,000 volunteers to put down the rebellion. As a result, Virginia and several border states seceded, or attempted to do so [except Kentucky, which tried to remain neutral]. Interestingly enough, for all the  those who espoused the right of secession, Virginia sought, by force of arms, to prevent West Virginia from seceding from Virginia [the only time McClellan defeated Robert E. Lee].

Ft. Sumter was returned to the Union when a chap named William T. Sherman steamrolled the state of South Carolina in 1864-1865. The flag that had flown in 1861 was flown again. Anderson went on to be a Northern hero and a general. But his command of Kentucky proved a failure [the South violated that state's neutrality first], and he retired. Beauregard managed, after Bull Run, and especially after Shiloh, to get on Jeff Davis' enemies list. He never held a significant command for the rest of the war.

1864: The Fort Pillow Massacre

Fort Pillow was originally built by the Confederates [It was named for a Confederate general who built it. But with Union progress in 1862 in gaining control of the Mississippi, the Rebels abandoned it, and the Union took control of it. Located on the river in Tennessee, it was not a particularly easily defensible position despite the topography. In April, 1864, it was garrisoned by approximately 600 troops, half of whom were Black, and half of whom were Tennessee loyalists. And on April 12, 1864, Confederate MG Nathan Bedford Forrest came calling with about 2,00 of his friends [give or take].

Forrest had been on a raid for over a month, with varying degrees of success. But he had been stymied at Paducah, despite threats of no quarter if the fort there was not surrendered. Detaching much of his then 7,000 man force to, among other things, return to Paducah, Forrest with two divisions of troops, moved on to Ft. Pillow. By the time he himself arrived, his troops already had the fort surrounded. An attack opened with sharpshooters on high ground. they not only began causing severe casualties to the garrison, they caused a Union gunboat in the river near the fort to close its gun ports, and basically take itself out of the action [including rescuing any of the garrison if they were forced from the fort].

Forrest now issued one of his typical demands for surrender, ending with an ominous threat against the garrison tatamount to 'no quarter', if they failed to surrender. The garrison commander having been killed in the initial phases of the battle, his successor, the commander of the Tennessee volunteers asked for an hour to consider the offer. Forrest offered twenty minutes, at which point surrender was declined [both the Blacks and the Tennesseans were chary of their potential treatment by the Southerners [the former because of their race, the latter because they were perceived as traitors to the South.

With that refusal, the battle erupted in full force. The Confederates of Chalmers Division ad other units stormed into the fort. Soon increasing numbers of Union troops attempted to surrender. They were shot down. Others, fleeing toward the river were killed by Confederates who had been engaging the gunboat, or other sharpshooters. Forrest, who was not in the fort at the time, entered later, and eventually order was restored. But at least a third of the Union troops were dead, with the bulk of the dead being Black troops. Forrest lost less than twenty killed and a hundred wounded. The Confederates abandoned the fort the next day.

Ft. Pillow had two results. One was a U.S. Congressional inquiry. The second was an order from Grant to MG Ben Butler to get assurances from the Confederate Army and government that Black Union troops would be treated correctly and exchanged at the same rate as White union prisoners. when the South refused, Grant suspended prisoner exchange. For many Union troops, it led to the hell of Andersonville or its like. But for the Confederacy, the steady dimunition of manpower, and the ability to raise new levees, hit critical mass, from which the South never recovered; a loss so severe, that in the Spring of 1865, the Confederate Congress agreed to a proposal from Robert E. Lee to enlist, arm , train, and deploy slaves in the Confederate Army with the promise of manumisson at the end of their service.

On April 12, 1945, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt dies at Warm Springs, Arkansas, of a massive cerebral hemorrhage. Roosevelt, America's only four term President, had been increasingly ill over the preceding year [check photos of him at the Yalta conference], but had kept his medical issues from the public with the aid of the sycophantic press corps. He had been visited by his long time mistress [or former mistress], Lucy Mercer the morning of his death.

Roosevelt's death brought [misplaced] joy in Berlin, and major sadness in America. He was and still is, missed by many. But not by me.

Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States, is shot in the head with a .41 caliber Derringer pistol by john Wilkes Booth while attending a performance of the play, "Our American cousins", at Ford's Theater. Lincoln will die in the early hours of the morning from his head wound.

The shooting was part of a plot by a group of southern sympathizers led by Booth to decapitate the Federal government. Secretary of State Seward is wounded in huis home in a knife attack. The Secretary of War is sparedwhen the man assigned to attack him chickens out.

Booth escapes by jumping from the Presidential box onto the stage [breaking a leg] and fleeing the city on a horse. He will not be found for over a week, and is mortally wounded by a Union cavalryman when booth is found hiding in a barn. Of the rest of the conspirators, one escapes to Canada and England. the rest, including his mother, are hanged.

Lincoln presided over the nation during the Southern Secession and civil War. He is remembered for winning that war, and soaring oratory such as the Gettysburg Address. He also suspended the Writ of Habeas Corpus, exiled U.S. citizens, and destroyed Federalism. when he was done, the states were largely satrapies.

One unforeseen consequence, from Booth's point of view, was the impact of Lincoln's death on Reconstruction. Almost immediately, William T. Sherman was forced to renounce the terms of surrender he had negotiated with Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston., which were based on his discussions with Lincoln and Grant prior to the end of the war. Sherman was required to accept the unconditional surrender of Johnston's army. And the Reconstruction became far harsher than Lincoln intended [the Southerners had something to do with that].

And Lincoln was the first U.S. President murdered while in office. He would not be the last.   

I agree with you Jafo. I also think Russia won't sit back either on NK.

Not missed by me either.

1775: the American Revolution starts when British regulars move against Lexington and Concord to seize munitions, weapons, and if possible, several revolutionaries, including John and Samuel Adams.

Forewarned by several riders [including Paul Revere], Colonial militias begin to gather. A skirmish takes place at Lexington, started by a gunshot fired by one side or the other. By the time the British reach the concord Bridge, colonials engage them in a firefight. But the major damage to the British occurs as they retreat toward Boston. Colonists coalesce along the entire route, fighting Indian style [apologies, Sen. Warren from behind trees and stone walls, before falling back and moving to new positions further along the route of march. the British column only escapes further injury when a relief column shows up to aid them.

This opening battle of the Revolution contains a motif that will follow the British through the war. They will never successfully figure out a way to fight the American irregular style of war. Conversely, while the Americans will suffer losses because of their inability, despite their attempts, to successfully engage the British in conventional combat in the early stages of the war, they will have leaned to do so within three years. Within two, a combination of their improved conventional warfare skills, coupled wityh their mastery of irregular warfare, will crush the British at Saratoga, and bring France into the war as an American ally.


1943: The Warsaw Uprising begins:

Heinrich Himmler, Reichsfuehrer SS, decided to offer Adolf Hitler the final dissolution of the Warsaw Ghetto, as a birthday present. Columns of SS police troops converged on the Ghetto on April 19th [the day before Hitler's birthday] to carry out the order. But the remnants of the Jewish community in the Ghetto was well aware of their proposed fate by April 19th. The local Jewish government, the Judenrat, had been fulfilling SS evacuation quota lists for months. Railroad cars with indications of passengers [scratchings on the railroad car interiors, etc.] were found returning to the Ghetto for more evacuees far sooner than they should have been, ostensibly carrying evacuees for re-settlement and work in the East [sometimes less than five days]. And at least several escapees from the Auschwitz- Birkenau had returned to warn the Ghetto inhabitants of what really awaited them.

So, with what few firearms , grenades and other weapons they were able to buy from the Poles, the Jewish defenders of the Warsaw Ghetto gave the SS who entered the Ghetto not only a surprise welcome, but a hot one. In fact, they forced the SS to withdraw. And Himmler found himself in a fix of his own making. the result was a full on assault on the Warsaw Ghetto that took weeks. An SS Brigadefuhrer, Jurgen Stroop was brought in to supervise "operations". So were engineers, heavy weapons, and more SS troops. They used gas, flamethrowers and explosives when Jewish freedom fighters took to the sewers. The result, sadly, was a foregone conclusion. The SS shot every prisoner they took, the Ghetto was largely razed, a few souls managed to escape, and Stroop was able to present his Reichsfuhrer with a lavishly illustrated leatherbound report  entitled "The WARSAW GHETTO IS NO MORE [which he may have regretted after the war when they were slipping the rope around his neck].

And Himmler's initial reason backfired in a major way. the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising is remembered as a heroic stand for freedom and against tyranny, not as a spectacular birthday present for Adolf Hitler

753 B.C.:

The city of Rome is founded, purportedly by the brothers Romulus and Remus [Romulus will kill his brother in a fight over who will rule].

Rome will be governed by a series of Etruscan kings over the next three to four centuries, finally expelling the last, Tarquin the Proud and founding the Republic. Rome will grow from a City State to a regional, then peninsular power, the dominant power in the Western Mediterranean, and finally the hyper power of Europe by the 2d century A.D. Along the way, there will be at least three Civil Wars,  the Republic will be subsumed by an Emperor, and Rome will create the greatest and longest lasting land Empire in Europe, finally falling in the 5th century, A.D.

Rome has bequeathed us the framework for our laws, our military, architecture, engineering, and, surprisingly, wedding customs, including the veil [theirs was orange], the wedding cake [they broke it over the bride's head], and carrying the bride over the threshold [a remembrance of the Rape of the Sabine women]. Rome also gave us waterproof concrete, the basis of many European languages, and one of the foundations of English. Not bad for seven hills and a dirty river.



1836:

The Battle of San Jacinto is fought.

After retreating in the face of a blitzkrieg from Mexican President [dictator], and military Supremo, Antonio Lopez y Santa Ana [the self-styled 'Napoleon of the West', Texas General Sam Houston turns on Santa Ana at San Jacinto where the latter, having split his army, is encamped, resting on his 'laurels' after the battle of the Alamo and the massacre of Fanning's Goliad column.

Houston's attack catches the Mexicans totally by surprise, and the battle is over in less than half an hour. Houston's losses are negligible, Santa Ana's heavy. Houston's large haul of prisoners, gathered over the day of battle and those following it, includes Santa Ana himself, who had fled the battle. Santa Ana bargains his life for Texas independence. But the border between Texas and Mexico remains tense, due, in part, to conflicting understanding over WHERE, exactly the border is. A further aggravating factor is the fact that elements in Texas, and the United States want Texas to join the Union,  The issues between Texas, Mexico and the United States will never be settled to any party's full satisfaction, but Texas, along with New Mexico, Arizona, California, and much of the rest of the Southwest will become part of the United States after the latter's victory in the Mexican War.



1918:

Rittmeister [Cavalry Captain] Manfred Freiherr [Baron] Von Richtofen, is killed in combat over the Western Front. Richtofen, the so-called Red Baron [because of the color of his airplane], was World War I's leading fighter pilot, with 80 downed enemy aircraft.

Richtofen started the war as an Uhlan [lancer] officer in the Imperial German Army, but switched to flight training within a year or so. Initially, his piloting skills were not exceptional. what was exceptional was his shooting skill [Richtofen was a formidable hunter].

Richtofen came into his own under the tutelage of Oswald Boelke, a great fighter pilot, and the father of modern fighter tactics. Boelke established teamwork as the basis for his squadron, and drilled his pilots in tactics until they were proficient. And Richtofen was very proficient. When Boelke died, Richtofen assumed command of the squadron, and in no time at all, in part because of the garish paint schemes each of the pilots painted their planes [all had some red in honor of Richtofen], the squadron gained immortality as "Richtofen's Flying Circus" [Richtofen also espoused the doctrine of 'Shoot the pilot and the plane goes with him. And he was famous for doing just that with short bursts of fire].

Richtofen [and his men] rolled up impressive scores of 'kills' for the next three years. But technological superiority passed back and forth with the Allies, and they began to catch up tactically as well. Plus, the Germans had no relief. As in the second war, German pilots didn't rotate. They stayed at the front.

Richtofen's last sortie occurred shortly after his 80th victory. But the Richtofen of 1918 was a different man than the Richtofen of 1916, or even 1917. He had been shot down the previous year, suffering a head wound, and it may well have affected him. B ut on the day he died, he seemed in top form. He was on the tail of a Commonwealth pilot when Captain Roy Brown of the Royal Air Force [a Canadian] got behind him and opened fire. At the same time some Australian ground troops opened up on him, as he flew lower, with a machine gun. 

Richtofen's blood red Fokker Triplane crash landed. He was found slumped over with one bullet wound in the side. Conventional wisdom credited Brown with his death. But more recently, studies and experiments have seemed to give the credit to the ground troops.

The Allies buried Richtofen with full military honors, dropping reports on the funeral at the Flying Circus' aerodrome. Richtofen's brother Lothar [40 kills] survived the war, as did his cousin Wolfram [who would rise to General's rank as commander of Fliegerkorps VIII in the Luftwaffe]. The Flying Circus fought on until the end of the war. It's last commander was a 26 kill pilot named Hermann Wilhelm Goering.

It was immortalized in a John Wayne movie. It was, strategically, possibly the most important and successful cavalry operation of the Civil War. and it was led by a former music teacher who was afraid of horses.

Benjamin Grierson was tasked by Ulysses S. Grant with the task of riding into Mississippi, destroying the railroad junction at Newton Station, and diverting confederate attention from Grant's soon to commence operations against Vicksburg. Leaving La Grange, Tennessee in the second half of April, Grierson set out to carry out his orders.

Grierson rode almost the entire length of the state, avoiding rebel patrols where possible. But when contact occurred, he would "peel off" a diversionary force and have it go back to La Grange drawing the rebels off with it. As a result, Grierson's arrival at Newton Station on April 22, 1863 fell like a thunderbolt. His troops tore up several miles of track, destroyed railroad equipment, military stores, and disappeared as suddenly as they had come. but unlike his diversionary units, Grierson did not return to La Grange. He and his men rode southwest to Union lines at Baton Rouge, Louisiana.

It was a spectacular success. By the time the confederate High Command re-focused on Grant, he was on the approaches to Vicksburg. The repairs to the rail lines, etc. at Newton Station took several months. Months during which neither supplies, nor reinforcement could pass through to Vicksburg. and it was all accomplished with minimal loss to the Union troops.

As a result, Grierson was promoted to Brevet Brigadier General. After the war, he reverted to the colonelcy of one of the two Black Cavalry regiments, the 10th. He made a major contribution in defeating the Apache uprising led by Victorio. But Grierson, not a West Point graduate, did not do well with Sherman, or more particularly, Sheridan, so his contributions in the Indian Wars did not receive the credit they deserved.

Ireland during the Viking Age was an unusual place in several respects. First, many of Ireland's now major cities, Dublin, Waterford, Limerick, Cork were originally Viking settlements / towns/ cities / power centers. Second, although there were raids by the Danes, Ireland was predominantly a Norwegian enterprise. Third, through various intermarriages, etc., the Viking ruling caste was more closely intertwined with the native Irish nobility. And fourth, the Irish came late to be led by a national ruler [more or less] who was able to confront the Norse.

His name was Brian Boru, and while born a noble, he was not born a prince of a national ruling family. Most of Ireland was a set of minor kingdoms and had no national ruler.Brian and his brother changed all that.

By 1014, Brian was recognized as high king of Ireland, but family ties, with Boru, were complicated. His [soon to be ex] wife, also happened to be the mother of the former Viking king of Dublin, Sithric Silk Beard, who was also married to a sister of Boru's [Brian had already taken Dublin, while allowing Sithric and his followers to remain under his suzerainty]. Thena quarrel erupted between Boru's son and one of the Irish lesser kings. Boru's wife used the opportunity to flee, and urge her son to rebel. He did, and called the Norse from the Norwegian holdings in the islands around Ireland and Britain,as well as in Ireland itself, and Norway to join him. They did. In sizable numbers. They included such stalwarts as Jarl Sigurd of the Orkneys, and Brodir of Man. And several Irish kings joined him. But Ireland being Ireland, numbers of Vikings joined Boru.

Battle was joined on Good Friday, April 23, 1014. The Irish forces were led by Boru's son [Brian was an old man by then, and since it was Golod Friday, chose to pray in his tent]. By then end of the day, the Irish crushed the Norwegians, inflicting almost twice the casualties they themselves suffered. But their dead included both Boru's son and grandson [Sigurd fell as well]. And while fleeing the battlefield, Brodir of Man and a group of his followers stumbled on to Brian's tent. Brodir and Brian killed each other. It was, for all extents and purposes the true end of the battle.

But Sithric remained ruler of Dublin. And Ireland, with the leaders of the ruling dynasty dead, descended into chaos. But Brian had broken the norse in Ireland. And they would never rise as a significant threat again.

On 25 April, 1945, units of the U.S. First Army approached the Elbe River near Torgau, in northern Saxony, Germany. As they did so, they observed troop movements on the other side of the river. but the troops were not Germans, but Soviets, units of the first Ukrainian Front. The Third Reich had been cut in half from east to west.

American troops had stormed the Rhine initially at Remagen, when a railroad bridge had failed to detonate when the Germans attempted to blow it. Bradley and Hodges [the first Army commander] had pushed as many troops as they could lay their hands on over the bridge before it finally did partially collapse into the river [the German officers who had been defending the bridge were shot on Hitler's orders]. Bu by then, pontoon bridges had been put across the river under cover of the First Army's bridgehead, and Third Army [Patton], and then 21st Army Group [Montgomery] had also forced crossings and began to drive east [Montgomery toward the North Sea ports and Schleswig - Holstein and Denmark, Patton and Hodges to encircle the Ruhr, and both the latter to drive further east [Patton would wind up in Bavaria and, temporarily, in Czechoslavakia.

The Soviets were driving west from an offensive that had started on January 20th, in response to the increased weakness of the German armies facing them, caused by the stripping of armor and other assets from the Eastern Front for the Battle of the Bulge. Commanded by Marshal Konev, Zhukov's principal rival, First Ukrainian Front was part of the Berlin encirclement, and also tasked with operations in central and southern Germany. Hence their arrival on the Elbe.

Germany now wound up with two national headquarters: Hitler's bunker in Berlin [he had five days to live], and Doenitz' headquarters at Ploen [Goering had been stripped of his offices and titles by Hitler]. German government officials gravitated to Ploen, while many top Nazis and their families went south [including Goering].

It was the nail in the coffin. Filmed by Allied cameramen, the U.S-Soviet meetings were broadcast all over the world. With five days hitler was dead. within two weeks, Doenitz, as the new Fuehrer, surrendered. Te war was over.

It originated in the sands of Spanish Morocco and western Spain, when the Spanish Army revolted against the newly elected leftish Spanish government [the government overplayed its victory, enacting a series of 'reforms'; anti-clerical, anti-landowner, etc. Violence from both sides soon followed]. Its best units, the Spanish Foreign Legion, commanded by Gen. Francisco Franco, were in Morocco. The Spanish Navy, which overwhelmingly allied with the government, barred passage for the Legionnaires by sea. Enter Adolf Hitler.

Hitler was approached by Franco emissaries in Berlin seeking aid. He gave it. The aid consisted of a fleet of Junkers JU-52 transport planes, and some fighters to escort them. Franco's troops arrived in Spain by air.

As the Civil War intensified, it drew several European powers into it. Mussolini, seeking to increase his stature on the international stage, and seeking a fellow authoritarian, and possibly Fascist regime on the other side of France, sent over 80,000 troops, plus artillery, mechanized units, and air squadrons to the Generals. Hitler, seeing an opportunity to bind Italy to Germany, and to disperse French military strength to its western border, also sent a small contingent of ground troops, including some armor, artillery and anti-aircraft guns [read: 88s]. But his major contribution was air power. Seeing an opportunity to test and train his nascent air force, Goering sent squadrons of his latest fighters, the Me 109, He 111  bombers, Do 17 bombers, Ju 82A 'Stuka' dive bombers, and the Ju 52 transport/bombers, all under General Hugo Sperrle. The German contribution to Franco's war became known as "The Condor Legion". He also sent two of his "pocket battleships", the DEUTSCHLAND and ADMIRAL SCHEER as part of a multi-national naval interdiction patrol [ADMIRAL SCHEER wound up shelling a government held port in retaliation for some Spanish actions against German troops].

And learn the Germans did. It was in Spain that the Germans perfected the "four finger" fighter formation still in use today [Werner Molders]. It was in Spain that it is claimed that the 88 was first used as an ant-tank gun [Ritter von Thoma]. It was in Spain that the Germans began the process of inter-arms cooperation that reached perfection in France, in 1940, as 'Blitzkrieg'. And it was in Spain that the Condor Legion first unleashed mass bombing against an urban center. And that center was Guernica.

Guernica was in the Basque region of Spain, and had been the historic seat of the Basque legislature [the executive was in nearby Bilbao]. The Basques, ever seeking independence or autonomy , sided with the government. On April 26, 1937, the Germans came calling.

Guernica was bombed for over three hours. He 111s struck from high altitude, as did Do17s. Stukas dive bombed. Incendiaries were shoveled out the doors of Ju 52s. By the time the Germans left, Guernica was a flaming ruin. and although it may have been a militarily justifiable target [arms factory], the German bombing showed there was no intent to pinpoint a military target. It was simply a terror raid on a large scale.


Guiernic became a symbol of Fascist bestiality to the world. It was commemorated in a mural by Pablo Picasso. But in reality, it accomplished its goal. The Germans learned how to carry out a multi-layered sustained, bombing attack on an urban center. Goering got to learn the strengths and weaknesses of his equipment.And within a little over a year, Franco took Spain.

I watched a special a few years ago about the  Colosseum in Rome. It was fascinating. They took you around the Colosseum present day..then showed what it might of looked like in its day.

I enjoy these so much. How the heck did you know he was a fomer music teacher who was afraid of horses?

Read it in a book about the raid. Grierson was bitten by a horse as a child, and developed a fear of them. Pre-Civil War, he earned his living teaching music, but, like many, when the war came, he volunteered to fight for the Union. Did so well, he stayed in the Army.

Unlike others, say Custer, Grierson did not refuse the command of a Black regiment after the war, and he led the 10th well.

His father was a fanatical Socialist. He himself was named after the revolutionary President of Mexico, Benito Juarez. He grew up as a Socialist, was a leading member of the Socialist movement in Europe and Italy,edited the European Socialist newspaper, and knew and exchanged ideas with Vladimir Lenin. His name was Benito Mussolini.

Mussolini, a former school teacher, broke with the Left over World War I. He supported Italy's entry into the war, and, indeed, served in the Italian Army on the Isonzo front. By the War's end, he had been discharged, and had left Socialism behind. Relying on embittered veterans, he formed his own political movement, the Fascist Party [taking their name from the Fasces Lictors carried during the roman Republic and Empire], complete with its own paramilitary, the Squadristi Fascisti - the Blasckshirts.

Based primarily in the industrialized north of Italy, Mussolini grew his party based on a m?lange of socialist and nationalist ideas. And in 1922, Mussolini and his Blackshirts marched on Rome, where he seized power in a bloodless coup, being named Prime Minister by the king, Victor Emmanuel [Mussolini would go on to be the longest reigning Fascist dictator in Europe, but for one, Salazar of Portugal].

Mussolini sought to resurrect, in some form, the Roman Empire, and he sought to expand his influence in Greece, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean littoral. He referred to the Med as "Mare Nostrum", or 'Our Sea', which was a bit much, considering the presence of both the royal and French navies. And although he was a militarist who vastly expanded the Italian military [in quantity, and except for the Navy, and to a degree, the Air force, not in quality], he was, initially, popular in both Italy and the world [the original version of Cole Poter's "You're the Top" had a line, "You're the Mussolini"]. He drained the Pontine marshes, he 'made the trains run on time', and the Fascist experiment attracted observers from all over the world, and followers from all over Europe. Indeed, most Fascist movements, governments and leaders in the early days patterned themselves on Mussolini, not his soon to be compatriot Adolf Hitler.

Hitler himself was a groupie. He sent Mussolini a 'fan letter' early on. He had a bust of Mussolini in his office. The Beer Hall Putsch was inspired by, and sought to emulate, the March on Rome. His NSDAP adopted the Italian Fascist salute, which was, in turn, adopted from the Roman Empire [in return, after his visit in 1937, Mussolini had the Italian Army adopt the 'goose step', which Mussolini named the 'Passo Romano'].

At first, Mussolini was counted on one of the 'respectable' heads of Europe. He acted as a brake on the Austrian Nazi coup of 1934. He joined in several collective pacts. But it didn't last. The first crack was Italy's war on Ethiopia. It should also have been Mussolini's first warning. For although the Italian military under Marshal Pietro Badoglio won, they had to use poison gas to do so. And then there was Spain. Mussolini aided the Franco forces to the tune of some 80,000 troops, plus aircraft, tankettes, trucks, etc. The action caused further distance from France and Britain, and drove 'Il Duce' further into the embrace of Adolf Hitler.

Mussolini offered no objection, as opposed to 1934, when the Nazis seized Austria in 1938. He 'acted' as mediator at the Munich conference when Czechoslavakia was carved up, giving the Sudetenland to the Germans. He had no objection to Germany's seizure of the rest of the country in early 1939. In fact, he joined Italy to Germany first in the Pact of Steel, then in the Tripartite Pact [with Japan]

Mussolini blinked, however, when Germany invaded Poland, and triggered WW II in Europe. Claiming severe shortages in natural resources and military equipment, Mussolini passed on joining the war effort in 1939. But as the Germans rolled over France, Mussolini worried about not having a seat at the table without the spilling of Italian blood. So on June 10th, 'the hand that held the dagger", to paraphrase FDR, struck. By the time of the French surrender, Italy had gained several hundred yards of southern French soil - and nothing else, except enemies in the form of Britain, the Commonwealth and the Free French, and an ally who would eventually be an overlord - Nazi Germany.

Mussolini went from one disaster to the next. In 1940, the invasion of Egypt petered out, was counterattacked by the British, and Italy came within a whisker of losing Libya [the Germans were required to send help - Erwin Rommel and friends]. Italy lost both Ethiopia and Somalia. An Italian invasion of Greece was stopped and driven back, requiring German intervention once again. the result was that the Balkans, which Mussolini regarded as an Italian sphere of influence, came under largely German dominance.

It got worse at sea. From Cape Matapan to Taranto, the Royal Navy basically swept the Regia Marina from the seas. And then, in 1943, the Allies invaded Sicily [Operation HUSKY], It was then that one of the weaknesses in Italian Fascism came to the fore. While Mussolini was 'Il Duce", he did not rule, as Hitler did, by himself. There was the King, and there was the Fascist Grand Council. And that council stripped Mussolini of his premiership, and that King had him arrested. It appeared he was done.

But there were Germans swarming all over Italy. Lots of them. And they quickly disarmed the Italian Army when Italy switched sides, and occupied most of the country. They also located the place where Mussolini was being held [a hotel on the Gran Sasso mountain], and quickly rescued him.

But there was a price. Mussolini, now a sick man, wanted out. But Hitler insisted he rule a rump state in northern Italy, the "Salo Republic". He also insisted Mussolini execute those members of the Grand Council the Germans had grabbed, including Mussolini's son-in-law, and former foreign minister, Count Ciano. Mussolini's daughter never forgave him.

The Salo Republic was a Potempkin village, but a vicious one. There were Fascists from the old days, German troops, Italian troops, German SS, Italian SS; all embroiled in a bitter war with Italian partisans of various stripes. Atrocities on both sides were common, and massacre was the word of the day.

But by April, 1945, the handwriting was on the wall. Allied columns were probing the shores of Lake Como, and it was time to leave. Mussolini hoped to reach Switzerland, where his family had re-located earlier. Disguised as a German soldier, as was his mistress, Clara Patacci, who accompanied him, Mussolini fled in a German military column headed north. He never made Switzerland. the column was stopped at a partisan roadblock. Mussolini, Pattacci and several other Fascists were recognized. they became the price the Germans paid to proceed on their way.

Unfortunately for him, Mussolini wound up a prisoner of Communist partisans. The result was foregone. He was taken, with Pattacci, outside, placed near a wall, and shot. Their bodies, and those of other Fascists, were then taken to Milan, and dumped in a square, where Italians urinated on, spit on, and mutilated the bodies. They were then hanged by their feet from a steel beam parallel to the ground [Someone had the 'decency' to pin up Patacci's skirt], and remained there until American troops cut them down and protected them.

Mussolini, in the long run, was a disaster for Italy. He wrote checks his people couldn't cash. He went to war with an Army that was inferior to both its Ally and its enemies. Every military adventure he undertook turned to dust. He left his country open to bombing, invasion, and occupation by the Germans. He was a failure on an epic scale. And, oh yeah, Cole Porter changed that lyric.
 

With the withdrawal of the last American troops some two years before, the Republic of Viet Nam [South Viet Nam] was left to handle its own defense against the North Vietnamese Army, and what was left of the South's own [theoretically] Viet Cong, supported by promises of American military aid and air power [if necessary].

But those promises were made by Richard Nixon, and by 1975 he was gone, replaced by his Vice President,Gerald Ford, after Nixon's resignation. And Ford was no Nixon. He faced a hostile, Senate and House, and a war weary populace. And that Congress continually whittled down the appropriations for the south Vietnamese military. And in 1975, the North Vietnamese struck, not with intensified guerilla war, but with a series of conventional attacks, spearheaded by armor and mechanized infantry [brought down the Ho chi Minh Trail]. The South Vietnamese, initially, fought well [see the battle of An Loc]. But they ran out of artillery  ammunition, small arms ammunition, air ordnance, etc., courtesy of Sen. Frank church and his allies.

And then the South Vietnamese made moves to placate the North. President Thieu and Vice President Ky left the country. Gen. 'Big' Mihn, long in favor of accommodation took over. But the North smelled blood. No accommodation was countenanced. And we were left with the pictures of people climbing to the roof of the U.S. embassy compound to board the helicopters outbound to waiting U.S. ships, and of T-54 tanks crashing through the gates of the Presidential palace. It was over. 58,000 American dead, and god knows how many South Vietnamese, Aussies, South Koreans and others, made meaningless by a pusillanomous American Congress.

After its monumental defeat at Fredericksburg, and the humiliation of the 'Mud March', the Army of the Potomac retreated north of the Rappahannock, licked its wounds, and reorganized under yet another new commander, MG Joseph 'Fighting Joe' Hooker.

Hooker had been a Corps commander under McClellan and Burnside, and had an enviable reputation as a 'fighting general. Yet he was not thought of as a deep thinker, nor as necessarily a good choice as an Army commander, nor as a strategist. Turns out he wasn't bad.

Hooker realized the first issue he faced in the winter of 1862-1863 was the morale of his Army. Aside from Antietam, Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia had been beating them like a drum. So Hooker began doing what he could to enhance morale. He did the expected things, making sure the troops had enough food, good clothing, sufficient transport, munitions, etc. But he also introduced the Corps badges Union troops began to wear on their hats, a move VERY popular with the troops, and a move that sharpened the elan of his various units. Hooker also ordered a reorganization of the Union cavalry, from a variety of independent regiments normally assigned to picket, escort, and messenger duties, into a single Corps [much like Stuart's Cavalry in Lee's Army]. It was his most significant, and far reaching reform. Within six months, the Union Cavalry would go from equaling the Rebels [Brandy Station] to beating them on the battlefield [Runnel's Farm]. within two years, they would be able to defeat whatever the South threw at them, Cavalry or Infantry. They would kill JEB Stuart and defeat him soundly [at Yellow Tavern], and turn the Shenandoah into a wasteland. Within three they would drive Lee from Petersburg, capture a third of his Army at Sailor's Creek, and cut off his escape route at Appomattox. And it was Hooker that started the ball rolling.

With morale improved, Hooker turned to strategy, and what he came up with was brilliant. Lee was still dug in behind Fredericksburg. But two divisions of his First Corps under Longstreet were on detached duty further south, leaving Lee with some 60,000 effectives and an army almost twice that size. So leaving Sedgewick's Corps [plus one division] to screen Lee, and lead him to think the Union was again going to attack Fredericksburg, Hooker sideslipped to his left, moved north and west, and crossed the Rappahannock behind Lee, and to his north. Lee was now faced  [although he initially din't know it, with being attacked from two sides.

Lee was in the dark, initially, because the Union cavalry under George Stoneman, moved out to raid Lee's supplies, and initially prevented Stuart from reconnoitering the Union movement, and reporting the move to Lee. That soon changed, and Lee reacted by dividing his Army, leaving Jubal Early to confront Sedgewick, and taking the rest of his troops to confront Hooker.

Hooker had crossed the river at a tangle of heavy brush and woods known as the Wilderness. Yet, the move had paid off. His troops [three Corps] were about to break out into open ground, when Lee made contact. And it was at that point that Hooker, usually known for his aggressiveness, made the mistake that would eventually cost him the battle. He froze, and ordered his army into defensive positions, in the Wilderness. And he handed the initiative to Lee.

That night, Lee conferred with his II Corps commander, LTG Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson, and the commander of his Cavalry Corps, MG JEB Stuart. Stuart reported two facts of interest. First, the Union XIth Corps, on Hooker's right and Lee's left had their flank 'in the air', and unanchored. Second, there was a set of roads through the woods that debauched to the right of the XIth Corps. The plan was discussed, and set. Early on 2 MAY, Jackson, guided by Stuart, took his entire Corps on a forced march up those roads to get to the right of XIth Corps.

Jackson's progress across the front of the Army of the Potomac was noted by various pickets and units [30,000 men can raise a lot of dust, and a fair amount of noise], but despite messages 'up the line', nothing was done. And late on the afternoon of May 2d, Jackson fell on the open flank of a totally unaware XIth Corps. The rout was on. As Jackson drove generally east, Lee attacked from the other end. Hooker was now under attack from two sides. What saved the Army of the Potomac was the lateness of the attack, and the exhaustion of the southern troops. As the Union forces fell back, they began to coalesce around small units that stood and fought. The Confederate momentum slowed. And as it got darker, the attacking units got dispersed, and, occasionally, intermingled with their northern counterparts. And it was at that point that Jackson, riding ahead to reconnoiter, was shot and mortally wounded by his own men, bringing the attack to a confused halt for the night.

Lee resumed the attack the next day, with Stuart leading the flank attack in command of not only his cavalry, but Jackson's Corps as well. For Hooker, it was all over [part of his problem may have stemmed from being hit in the head with a falling porch roof after it was struck by a cannonball]. Hooker retreated over the Rappahannock. Lee then turned, marched back the way he had come, and attacked Sedgewick, who had forced Marye's Heights and was driving to join hooker. Lee handily defeated Sedgewick, forcing him to withdraw. Chancellorsville was over.

For Lee, it was a stupendous victory. Dividing his Army not once, but twice, in the face of a superior enemy, Lee utilized first interior lines, then exterior lines in a flank attack that devastated the Union Army. Once he surrendered the initiative, Hooker never got it back.

But, in a way, Chancellorsville may have contained the seeds of Lee's downfall. Lee became convinced his Army could do anything. That hubris would soon be shot to hell on the third day of Gettysburg. With the loss of Jackson, Lee chose not merely to replace him, but to reorganize his own Army into three Infantry Corps, instead of the two he had used since assuming command. He chose Richard Ewell to command Jackson's Corps, and A.P. Hill to command the new Third Corps. Thus he would go into his next campaign with two thirds of his infantry commanded by men who had never commanded a Corps, and one Corps that was completely new. And to top it off, Lee angered his cavalry commander by choosing Ewell and Hill to command the Corps. Stuart wanted to be promoted to LTG [the normative rank for a Corps commander]. He had creditably handled Jackson's Corps after Jackson fell. He thought he should have gotten the command. Additionally, Stuart already commanded a Corps, the Cavalry Corps, but was still a MG [Stuart would never rise to LTG, although his successor as commander of the Cavalry Corps, Wade Hampton, would]. So Stuart went into the Gettysburg campaign with a chip on his shoulder, and with something to prove [especially after Brandy Station]. We all know how that turned out.

And Hooker? It was Hooker who ordered the Union Cavalry raid on Brandy Station, and Hooker who put the Army of the Potomac north toward, eventually, Gettysburg. But Hooker was relieved of command while the Army marched, and replaced by MG George Gordon Meade, who would be the last commander of the Army of the Potomac.

Hooker was transferred west, to serve under Grant. He won the Battle Above the Clouds, but the antipathy with Grant and Sherman, led to his resignation from the service. And Chancellorsville? As 'Fighting Joe' said, he lost his nerve.

After the nasty surprise of Doolittle's Raid in April, 1942, the Japanese High Command scrambled for a response. And while they did that, the Army and Navy both agreed that a further expansion to the south was in order. In an effort to cut off Australia's supply lines to the east, the Japanese planned to occupy the Solomon islands, and Port Morseby on New Guinea. To accomplish this, they sent the usual surface escorts, and transports. to back it up, they also sent Carrier Division 5, SHOKAKU and ZUIKAKU, veterans of the Pearl Harbor strike, and Japan's most modern fleet carriers. They were accompanied by the light carrier SHOHO. Commander of the operation was Admiral Inoue.

At first the operation seemed to go smoothly. Tulagi and Guadalcanal and other islands in the Solomons were occupied [Tulagi was the principal objective]. But several Japanese naval vessels and transports were sunk by U.S. carrier aircraft, alerting the Japanese to the presence of what would turn out to be the U.S carriers LEXINGTON and YORKTOWN (Adm. Jack Fletcher) [we knew about the Japanese through the same code breaking that set up the victory in a month at Midway].

And so the stage was set for the next revolution in naval warfare, a battle where the enemy ships never sighted each other. The U.S drew first blood, sinking SHOHO, the first Japanese carrier sunk in the Pacific war. But the Japanese responded with lethal force. Lexington was so badly damaged by the Japanese air attack, and a subsequent explosion from an undiscovered fuel leak she was scuttled. Yorktown suffered so much damage the Japanese assumed she sank, or was at least hors de combat for the forseeable future.

But Carrier Division 5 did not go unscathed. SHOKAKU was so heavily damaged her aircraft had to land on ZUIKAKU. ZUIKAKU was able to do this because her own air squadrons had been heavily depleted in combat with the American planes.

YORKTOWN returned to Pearl Harbor, to be repaired in some three days for return to the fleet - and to Midway. SHOKAKU returned to the naval yards of Japan for, to put it charitably, a more leisurely repair. She would miss Midway. And despite suffering only minor damage, so would ZUIKAKU, because Japanese doctrine required their aircraft carriers to fly squadrons and pilots trained with that ship. So she sat in Japan, taking aboard new pilots. And SHOKAKU's veteran squadron also stayed in Japan while their ship was repaired, also missing the Battle of Midway.

So what was the result of the Coral Sea? A short term tactical victory for the Japanese. But operationally, and strategically, it was a disaster. With Carrier Division 5's withdrawal, there was no assault on Port Morseby by sea. Instead the Japanese landed troops on the north side of New Guinea, and began trekking over the Kokoda Trail, creating a meat grinder they committed troops to for over a year.

Additionally, the Japanese now began building an airfield on Guadalcanal with the view toward interdicting the sea lanes to Australia from there. that would lead to the first U.S invasion of the Pacific war, and a slugfest that would not only cost the Japanese Army massive casualties, but would, despite several victories lead to the increasing erosion of the Japanese fleet, and particularly, her air arm.

And finally, the effect of the Coral Sea on Midway was catastrophic. Nagumo's KIDO BUTAI sailed into battle with one-third [at least] of its strength in Japan. The Americans would have naval parity. And the Japanese seemed to have failed to notice the improvement in American air operations. That failure was compounded by the success of U.S torpedo bombers at Coral Sea. At Midway, the Japanese CAP fixated on them to the point that when the U.S dive bombers appeared, the Japanese fighters were on 'the deck' , away from the carriers. The result was three carriers, AKAGI, KAGA and SORYU severely damaged in five minutes [all would sink or be scuttled], and the fourth carrier, HIRYU, severely damaged that afternoon, and sunk that night. It was a loss, coupled with operational losses around the Solomons for the next year, that destroyed most of Japan's experienced air power, and led to the Battle of the Philippines Sea, also known as "The Great Marianas Turkey Shoot".

1763 - Pontiac's Rebellion Starts:

By 1763, the British had won the French and Indian War, and both the Indians and the English colonists were grappling with the results. Many of the Indians, who had sided with the French were unhappy with the British government, especially Gen. Jeffrey Amherst, the British commander in North America. Amherst didn't much like Indians, and refused to continue long standing practices based on Indian custom, particularly the exchange of gifts prior to councils. The colonists were unhappy because the British government put all the territory beyond the Appalachians off limits to colonial settlement and exploitation, creating it as a sort of Indian preserve.

Enter Pontiac. Pontiac was an Ottawa, a tribe from the upper Midwest, who had fought for the French. Allied with a Delaware Holy Man, Pontiac [well in anticipation of Tecumseh] began preaching a united Indian federation, and war with the British on a large scale by a military alliance of the Indians, using a series of coordinated attacks on ALL the British outposts in the contested territory.

The offensive was set to begin in Spring, 1763. Pontiac reserved for himself, his people and several allies, the job of taking Ft. Detroit for the British. Other tribes targeted some dozen other posts. Within days, by subterfuge, surprise attack, etc. [one group got into  one fort by faking a lacrosse game and "accidentally" tossing the ball over the wall. The British let them in, a massacre followed], the Indians had captured ten of the forts. But Pontiac never got off his attack on Ft. Detroit. When he arrived there for a pow wow, with his braves carrying concealed weapons, he found the garrison deployed in combat formation, armed to the teeth. The garrison commander had ben forewarned, possibly by an Indian mistress. Pontiac was forced to undertake a siege, which considering Britain's naval domination of the water, and Ft. Detroit's location, was not likely to be successful, despite the eventual use of some 1,000+ warriors.

The Indians put the frontier to the torch, but the rising was doomed to failure. As a polity, the Iroquois refused to participate. The British reacted firmly, and pitilessly [there is an apocrophal story that Amherst had smallpox laden blankets distributed among the Indians]. And although the rebellion continued for a year, by 1764 it was largely over.

Still, it came within a whisker of success, and its results were devastating all around. the Indian alliance shattered. The colonists, displeased with both British policy [the government in London now began moving toward taxing the colonists for the upkeep of the military in the New World, and still officially barred settlement in the contested area] and the length of the conflict, began looking toward defending themselves. And what would be American attitudes toward Indians, nevergreat since King Philip's War, began to harden.

And Pontiac? The British made peace with him, but his self-proclaimed stature angered other Indians who had joined the revolt. Pontiac was assassinated by a fellow Indian in 1869, the first such victim in a list that would grow to include such luminaries as Sitting Bull.



1902 - MT. PELE ERUPTS:

Mt. Pele a 400 something foot volcano on the island of Martinique culminates a series of tremors and eruptions with a pyrophlastic flow that engulfs the town of St. Pierre. The cloud of ash and superheated gasses kills everyone in town, except for two people [one a prisoner in a subterranean jail cell. It capsizes ships in the harbor. The town is destroyed.



1915 - LUISITANIA IS SUNK:

It is probably the most famous sinking of a non- military ship in the history of warfare. Around 1400 hours, as she rounded the tip of Ireland on her way to Liverpool, R.M.S LUISITANIA is struck by a torpedo from a German U-boat in her engine roof. She sinks in some 20 minutes, with over 1,000 of her total complement of around 2,000 killed. The death toll includes over 100 Americans.

Despite warnings posted in U.S. media about the exclusionary war zone around Britain, and despite the fact LUISITANIA was carrying munitions, making her a military target, Americans are outraged, and Wilson threatens war. The Germans agree to halt unrestricted submarine warfare, and apologize. War is averted until 1917, when the Germans again declare unrestricted submarine warfare, which coupled with several other moves [the bone headed ZIMMERMANN telegram comes to mind], lead to America's entry into the war on the Allied side, and Germany's defeat in 1918.



1954 - THE FALL OF DIEN BIEN PHU:

A German general once described the war in the Soviet Union as 'an elephant battling ants. In the end, despite horrendous losses, the ants will win'. If ever that aphorism was true, it was at Dien Bien Phu.

Dien Bien Phu was a battle of French creation, in a location selected by the French, in accordance with a French strategy to force the Viet Minh to engage the French in a battle of attrition. It succeeded in bringing on the battle, but was a failure.

Dien Bien Phu lay in a valley to the west of Hanoi in what became North Viet Nam. It was in a position to disrupt Viet Minh troop and supply movements. The French decided to airborne in their elite paratroopers [including those of the Foreign Legion], and build a series of interlocking positions and fire bases, as well as an air strip. Re-supply, reinforcement and medevac were to be supplied by air, as was tactical fire support.

But the plan was based on a flawed premise, that the Viet Minh couldn't get enough troops with heavy support of their own onto the target, and based on a geographical absurdity - the French left the high ground to the Viet Minh.

The Viet Minh commander, Giap, had two aces to play: unlimited manpower, especially porters, and a host of U.S 105, and 155 mm. howitzers, courtesy of the Red Chinese [captured from the Kuomindong].

Giap had his engineers cut trails up to the hills surrounding Dien Bien Phu.  Using natural caves, and man-made ones, he then had the artillery disassembled and hauled up the trails in pieces, where the tubes were then reassembled. He did the same with anti-aircraft guns. And when all was ready, the Viet Minh opened the offensive.

The French held out, with rising casualties, diminished forces and ammunition, and a shrinking perimeter, until May 7, 1954. They lost control of the airfield, and several firebases early, and they never recovered from that. Air supply was spotty at best, and never successful in bringing in the necessary tonnage [a la Stalingrad].

The French surrender did not end the first Viet Nam war for independence, but it was the final nail in the coffin. France exited Indo-China soon afterward. In 11 years, American troop units would enter the southern half of the country [the Republic of Viet Nam], to take up the cudgel against the communists [advisors had been there since the Eisenhower days].

There you have it - four for 7 [and that excludes the German surrender on May 7, 1945 [see the thread on that in PzLdr HISTORY FACTS].

PART A: GENGHIS KHAN'S RISE:

He was born in northern Mongolia, date uncertain. He was named for a Tartar chieftain his father had captured around the time of his birth. He was descended from royalty. His grandfather, or great grandfather, Kabul Khan [ I have anglicized all the spellings where possible], had been paramount Khan of all the Mongol Khans, and was famed for having pulled the beard of the then Chinese Emperor, and dying for it. His father was Yesugai Bahadur [The Valiant], leader of the Borigjin clan of the Mongols [their unity had collapsed]. His mother was a woman stolen on her bridal journey to a Merkit chief named Houlon. His name was Temujin. He was born with a blood clot in his hand. And he has become known to us as Genghis Khan, the "Universal Ruler".

His childhood started like any other Mongol child. He learned to ride, shoot the bow, hunt, herd the horses and livestock. But as the son of a chieftain, it differed, too. At the age of nine or so, he accompanied his father east, to get a bride. Her name was Bortei, and Yesugai and her father agreed on a betrothal, and as was the custom, Temujin remained with her family as a quasi-indentured servant, so they could see what type of man their daughter would eventually marry. But at that point, the whole trajectory of Temujin's life changed.

A rider from his clan arrived at a gallop. His father, Yesugai, on his return from the betrothal, ran into a hunting party of Tartars, the clan's, indeed all the Mongols traditional enemies. Steppe tradition mandated safe conduct and hospitality in such cases. Yesugai was welcomed, fed - and poisoned. By the time Temujin arrived home, his father was dead. Worse, his clan, sworn to his father, abandoned Temujin, his mother, his father's other wife, his brothers Kassar and Temuge, his sister, Temulun and his half-brothers, Bektor and Belgutai, leaving them with almost nothing.

Forced to live on rodents, fish and whatever else they could catch, the family eked out a living in the mountains. but all was not well. Bektor was older than Temujin, and thought that by right he was the 'man' of the family. But Bektor's mother was not Yesugai's principal wife. Houlon was. And under Mongol custom, that made Temujin head of the family. Tensions and trouble arose. At some point Bektor either took by force some fish Temujin and Kassar had caught, or refused to share a bird or birds he had killed.  As a result, Temujin and Kassar ambushed Bektor and murdered him.

As rumor of the murder swept across the Steppe, it caused some of Yesugai's old clansmen to remember his family, especially his son. And either through fear or loathing, they began to hunt him. At one point he was captured by the Tadijut, Targotai, who instead of killing him, put Temujin in a Kang [wooden collar used to yoke oxen], and enslaved him. But Temujin, with a little help from some of Targotai's followers freed him, and he escaped.

Over the next several years, Temujin built a following. His men were chosen for two traits, loyalty and merit. Nobility was not a requirement to gain favor or rank. They included Muhuli, who would eventually be Temujin's deputy in China, Jelme, and his younger brother Subodei, and several others [He would later add a bowman who had almost killed him in battle, Jebe the Arrow Lord].

But Temujin needed allies. So first, he rode east and clasimed his bride, Bortei. He then took her dowry, a black sable fur, and rode west to the land of the Kerait, a mostly Nestorian Christian people ruled by Toghrul, known to the Chinese as Wang Khan. Torghrul had been Anda [blood brother] to Yesugai, and Yesugai had put him back on his throne after Toghrul's brother had forced him into exile. Accepting the sable, Toghrul sealed an alliance with the Mongols. Temujin also renewed an Anda relationship with another Mongol [Jerait] clan leader named Jamuga.

And then disaster struck. Temujin was surprised by a Merkit attack [the tribe to whom his mother was being sent all those years ago. they didn't get Temujin, but they did get Bortei. And by the time Temujin, Jamuga and Toghrul got her back, some nine months later, she was with child.

Jamuga and Temujin combined their clans for a while, but they soon fell afoul of each other. Jamuga believed only nobility should have positions of power. Temujin didn't. They soon parted, but warfare flared over a stolen horse. And it set the stage for a set of shifting alliances [Temujin was declared Genghis Khan, Jamuga was declared Gur Khan by his faction], and ever increasing war among the Steppe tribes. and by the time the smoke cleared, Temujin had defeated or rallied all the tribes and clans of the steppe under his banner. Some came willingly, some by conquest. One, the Tartars, by genocide. Every Tartar male talled than an ox cart wheel linch pin was killed. and, as with all other tribes and clans, the Tartars were broken up and distributed throughout the Mongol clans. Temujin was nationalizing the Steppe peoples.

Temujin had also built a highly organized army, based on units of ten: Arban [10]. Jagun [100], Minghan [1,000- the basic Mongol maneuver unit], and Tuman [10,000 - the division]. Armed with compound bows that could outshoot the longbow, shoot through armor, fired a variety of arrows, including whistling signal arrows], scimitars, maces and hooked lances, to drag an enemy horseman off his horse, or feet, the Mongol soldier went on campaign with a string of from five to eight horses, a raw silk shirt, used to assist in pulling arrowheads out of wounds, several quivers of arrows, milk curd and other dried food. In a pinch, they would drink their horse's blood [a Tuman was 60% light cavalry, and 40% heavy cavalry]. Drum signals and colored flags were used to signal during day, and colored lanterns were used at night.

Expertly led, trained and battle tested, the Mongol Army was ready for bigger things. Genghis Khan turned his gaze southward. to China.

B: THE CONQUESTS OF GERNGHIS KHAN

The first major power Genghis Khan set his sights on was China, but it was not the China we think of now. Starting in the 10th century, a unified china was attacked by two waves of horse nomads from Manchuria, the Khitans and the Jurchid or Jurchens. Both succeeded in conquering and occupying northern China, while the Sung Dynasty of the Han Chinese was driven south of the Yangtze River, where it held sway until 1279 AD.

The Jurchen overthrew the  Khitans, driving the ruling caste west, where they took over a predominantly Moslem country, which became known as Kara Khitai [the Khitans were Buddhist]. Also to the northwest of the Jurchin was Hsia-Hsia, a nation of Tanguts.

The Jurched named their dynasty "Chin", or 'Golden' [from which the name China devolved. the Khitans left the sobriquet, "Cathay"], and ruled from Beijing. They fought intermittent wars with the Sung along their southern border, and maintained a military presence consisting of Imperial troops, and mercenary barbarians along their northern border [relying in part on the Gobi desert as a natural shield, and on the then Great Wall as a manmade one]. the Jin had also made extensive use, at different times, of the Kerait and the Tartars, as a policy tool on the Steppe [at one point, when allied with Toghrul Khan, Genghis had served the Chinese. But the use of the Tartars would bite the Jin on the buttocks, once the Steppe people were united under Temujin, who considered the Tartars mortal enemies.

It came to a head when an ambassador from the newly installed Jin emperor came to accept Genghis Khan's oath of fealty. what he got was a stream of saliva to the south, and no oath. Genghis prepared for war.

Like the French 700 years later, the Jin thought they were secure behind their wall. Like the Germans 700 years later, the Great Khan did an end-around. First he travelled over the Gobi in winter [less heat]. He found willing allies in Kara-Khitai, who still hated the Jurchen usurpers [as they saw the Jurchid]. He invaded Tsia-Tsia, and quickly forced them to accept his suzerainty and an alliance. He co-opted most of the nomad mercenaries north of the wall, and several key Chinese [mostly Khitan officers] at strategic gates and strong points at the western end. The Mongols were through the wall with no major battles fought, nor casualties taken.

They then fanned out, raiding, razing and raping their way east and south. Chinese forces were ambushed, outmaneuvered and overwhelmed piecemeal. And soon the Mongols were at major cities. It was there Genghis Khan ran into trouble. He had no siege capability. And unless the Mongols could storm a city, or trick their way in [Jebe lured a Chinese garrison into a pursuit after a feigned withdrawal, after which he and Subedei turned on them, annihilated them, and pursued the survivors so closely, they got inside the open city gates before they could be closed], the Chinese stood a good chance of surviving as long as they had food or water.

Genghis finally arrived at Beijing, and them made peace with the Emperor, who swore allegiance and forked over massive amounts of tribute. But once the Mongols decamped, the Emperor fled south. Genghis, feeling he had been betrayed, returned and sacked Beijing, renewing the war with the Jin.

Genghis Khan returned to the Steppe, laden with swag, artisans, and perhaps most importantly, Chinese Civil servants, doctors, and military engineers. the days of a lack of Mongol siege craft were over [in Khwaresm, the Mongols would use Manganels, Trebuchets, siege crossbows, gunpowder weapons and a full panoply of Chinese siege engineering].

Genghis Khan left an army under Muhuli, who acted as his regent, to continue operations against the Jin, occasionally in alliance with the Sung, because another matter had arisen requiring his attention to the southwest, in the empire of the Khwaresm Shah.

Khwaresm was an amalgam of several provinces and kingdoms conquered over a period of time by the then Muslim governor for the caliph of Baghdad, who went on to proclaim himself Emperor. He was succeeded by his son Muhammed II, who after overrunning several more small appendages, proclaimed himself the new Alexander.

Still, Khwaresm had wealth, commerce, resources. And Genghis Khan decided to open trade relations with the Shah. He sent a large amount of gifts and a letter, proposing peace and trade. The local governor of Otrar, Inalchuk, seized a large caravan, and killed the Mongols with it. when Genghis Khansent an ambassador to Muhammed, seeking redress, Muhammed killed him, and sent his escorts back with their heads shaved.

Now under Mongol custom, an embassy was sacred [one of the first instances of 'diplomatic immunity']. The murder of the ambassador called for war.And war it was.

The Mongols sent a column toward Otrar under Jebe and Jochi, Genghis Khan's oldest son. Although a mere feint, they put up a more than creditable fight agasinst the Khwaresm troops they faced. And while the Muslims watched them, three more Mongol columns debauched fro the Tien Shan mountains. Two, led by two of Genghis' other sons, Ogatai and Chagatai invested or fought Muslim troops along the eastern front [the Muslims were using a static defense, even though they outnumbered the Mongols by over two to one]. The third column, led by Genghis himself, accompanied by Subedei and Genghis' youngest son [and possibly best general of the four sons], Tolui disappeared.

The Great Khan's column went through the Kyzyl Kum desert, and appeared WELL behind the front lines, west of Samarkand. Khwaresm fell apart. Muhammed's mother, a Turk had several thousand of her tribesmen try to go over to the Mongols. They were slaughtered. As the Khwaresm army fell apart, the Mongols fanned out. Normally, if a city surrendered it was spared. If it did not, it was razed. One exception was Merv. During the battle outside the city, one of Genghis Khan;'s sons-in-law, one Toguchar, was killed [he had been sent to the Khan in disgrace by Subedei and Jebe for disobeying orders, and broken to the ranks]. Tolui 'gave' the city to his sister, the widow. She demanded everything die. the Mongols killed every man, woman, child, dog, cat and bird they could find, then rode away. but they returned in three days, caught the survivors they had initially missed, and killed them, too.

Muhammed Shah, and some retainers, fled west for their lives. Genghis Khan sent Jebe, Subedei and two tumen in pursuit, with orders to kill him [Inalchuk, the source of all the sorrow had been captured when Otrar fell. He died when the Mongols poured molten silver in his mouth, ears, and eyes]. The Shah escaped [barely] to an island in the Aral Sea, where he died. Jebe and Subedei then undertook "The Great Raid", riding around the Aral Sea, up through the Caucasus, and then west to the Crimea, where they made an alliance with the Venetians, sacked a Genoese trading post, and prepared to return to the Khan after he summoned them. On the way, they were pursued by a Russian army four times their size, turned on it at the Khalka river, destroyed it and rode east, where they suffered their only defeat at the hands of the Volga Bulgars. It was on this trip that Jebe the Arrow Lord died.

When he summoned Jebe and Subedei back, Genghis also summoned Jochi who was operating on the steppe to the northwest. Jochi refused the summons, claiming illness. But Subedei reported   Jochi didn't appear ill. The problem was solved when Jochi suddenly died, apparently of the illness he claimed. But there is a strong possibility that Genghis Khan had his oldest son killed for disobeying him.

Genghis Khan spent the next few years in Khwaresm, before returning to Karakorum, the capital he had built. But he didn't remain there long.

When Genghis Khan had prepared for his war with Muhammed Shah, he had called on his allies to send him troops. the Khitans complied. Hsia-Hsia didn't, telling the messenger words to the effect that if Genghis couldn't conquer Khwaresm by himself, he shouldn't go. It was now Hsia-Hsia's turn.

It was to be Genghis' last campaign. During an interlude, he fell from a horse while hunting. A man in his 60s [only his grandson Kublai would live at least that long], and having lived a hard life, he made his plans on his deathbed. the khan of the Tanguts was not allowed to see him. Genghis ordered the Khan and his entire party killed after he died. He ordered the entire state of Hsia-Hsia razed. He gave specific orders for his burial, including the legendary provision that his grave be unmarked and unfound. He then passed into myth, and out of history.

Genghis Khan is remembered in Mongolia today as not only the father of his country, but a semi-deity. And he accomplished great things. He built a nation and bonded a people. He started the Mongols on the road to the greatest land empire in history, and in doing so led to an exponential expansion of trade and contact between th e Far East and Europe. And indirectly, once his successors' empires fell, and the Silk road was no longer safe, he may well have led to the Age of Discovery. not bad for a pagan, illiterate nomad born with a blood clot in his hand.

Genghis Khan had many wives [he tended to marry royalty from every tribe, clan or nation he took], and even more concubines. As a result he had MANY children. But the sons he is remembered for are four in number, and they are all children of his princioal wife, Bortei. They were Jochi, Chagatai, Ogedai and Tolui.

JOCHI was the first born, but a cloud hovered over his birth, since he may well have been the product of his mother's capitivity by the Merkit. And while Jochi was shown equal affection and respect by his father with his siblings,his name in Mongol meant "The Guest". And as he grew to maturity, Jochi became more of a rebel than his brothers. And as such, he either operated under his father's direct supervision, or in an independent command [usually advised by a senior Mongol general]. Jochi did not command formations with his brothers as subordinates.

Jochi served with the Mongol army in both Jin China and Khwaresm. It was in the latter war that he distinguished himself, commanding a separate, diversionary column [with Jebe] with elan and skill, fighting a superior Muslim force to a standstill.

But it was in Khwaresm that the question of Jochi's birth drove the first wedge into the golden family [so-called because only the descendants of Genghis and Bortei were allowed to wear golden collars on their clothing]. During the campaign, Genghis Khan convened a family council to plan the succession to his throne. Under Mongol custom, that throne should have gone to the first born, Jochi.

Chagatai would have none of it, declaiming in front of both his father and his mother that he would not suffer the rule of "that Merkit bastard". Both brothers came to blows, and it took their father's intervention to separate them without bloodshed. Since Chagatai refused to submit to Jochi, and Jochi Chagatai, Ogedai [the third son] was chosen as his father's successor, Jochi agreeing because Ogedai had always treated him with respect. The war over, Jochi rode out to campaign in the Cuman or Kipchak Steppe. He never saw his father again.

Jochi remained on the Steppe to the west, even when his father returned to Karakorum. He met Subedei on the latter's passage east from southern Russia after the Great Raid, but failed to return to Karakorum despite several summons from his father. He died on the Steppe, either from illness, or at the orders of his father [the Mongols were very adept at poisoning]. He was the only son of Genghis to predecease him. He left several sons, including Batu, Buri, Berke, and Sinkur.

CHAGATAI, the second brother was dour, a strict interpreter of his father's legal code, the Jasagh or Yasa [except for the drinking provisions], and an advisor to his brother, Ogedai. When Genghis Khan died he divided his empire, as was the custom, into four appenages for his four sons. As the youngest, Tolui got the Mongol homeland, and the bulk of the Mongol Army. Jochi's heirs were given all the lands to the west, "as far as Mongol horses had trod". After the Great Raid, that meant Russia. Chagatai got the southern steppe and most of eastern Khwaresm. Ogedai, the new 'Great Khan', got territory west of Tolui's, and Karakorum. Except for  providing advice to his brother, and troops and children for expeditions Ogedai ordered [including ongoing operations in China, the invasion of the West, and the invasion of Korea and the remnants of Manchuria], Chagatai ruled his Khanate and drank. He died sometime around the same time as his brother, Ogedai.

OGEDAI, the third son, and second Great Khan was, in some ways, more successful than his father. Ogedai more than doubled the size of the Mongol Empire, and when he died, it stretched from the Pacific to the Danube. Under Ogedai, the Mongols continued their expansion into the Muslim lands to their south and west, continued their wars in China, and overran the Korean peninsula and Manchuria. But he established trade and diplomatic ties to the west, enforced the religious freedom provisions of the Jasagh, and oversaw the building of Karakorum into a full sized capitol city with walls and permanent buildings. Ogedai died in the winter of 1241, most likely from drinking. His most famous [or infamous] son was GUYK, who became the third Great Khan.

TOLUI Khan showed the most military capability of his generation, performing well in China and Khwaresm. He may also have been the most psychotic of Genghis' sons. His butchery in Khwaresm was legendary.

As keeper of the hearth [read heartland], Tolui had strong cards to play. He controlled the Mongol Mongol Army [his brothers' armies had large infusion of Turks]. He controlled access to Burkhan Kaldun, the Mongols' sacred mountain where Genghis Khan had gone to pray. The capital of the Empire, and seat of the Great Khan, Karakorum, lay in his Ulus. And he was married to the great woman of her age, Sorghatani Beki, one of the daughters of Toghrul Khan [another daughter, Toregene Khatun was married to Ogedai]. But Tolui was loyal to his brother. Tolui died around 1234. the "Secret History of the Mongols" claimed he was sacrificed to save Ogedai's life in some manner, or he died from disease. In any case, Tolui predeceased both Ogedai and Chagatai. Hi had four sons who rose to fame: Mongke, Kublai, Hulegu and Arik Boka.

It was during the time [and reigns] of Genghis Khan's grandsons that the Mongol empire reached its apogee. It was also during that same period that the fissures that originated in the Jochi-Chagatai antagonism developed into the first cracks that presaged its fall. And it all began at party.

When Subedei rode west to conquer Europe, he not only took with him a large army, but also took princes of all the major houses and their retainers and house guards. Riding with him were Guyuk [son of the Great Khan], Mongke [oldest son of the deceased Tolui], Kadaan [son of Chagatai], and the ostensible commander of the army Batu [son of the deceased Jochi], and Batu's brothers.

It was at an initially convivial gathering in southern Russia, that Guyuk and Batu almost came to blows over who was to be treated as the senior Khan for the occasion. Batu complained to Subedei, and Guyuk [and Kadaan] were sent back to Mongolia for a reaming by their respective fathers, before returning for the campaign in Eastern Europe. But while they worked together, the bad blood between Guyk and Batu would fester, deepen, and lead to a dynastic seismic shift.

It was while in Hungary, in the Spring of 1242, that the khans and generals became aware that Ogedai was dead. Under the Jasagh, and Mongol custom, all the Khans and generals were expected to return to the homeland for a Kuriltai, a council, to elect [actually acknowledge] his successor. Subedei was for staying, and continuing the campaign, but Batu refused, more concerned with organizing and protecting his then conquests. Subedei never forgave him.

Ogedai had made clear that his preference for his successor was his grandson, Siremun. But his widow and regent, Toregene Khatun, had her own candidate in mind, and she delayed the Kuriltai until she had the vote in the bag. It was thus through her machinations that her son, Guyuk, became Great Khan.

Guyuk took the throne facing enemies to the west [Batu, who refused to attend], and the East [the House of Tolui]. Ogedei had suggested, after Tolui's death, that Tolui's widow, Sorghatani Beki [his sister -in - law], marry Guyuk. She declined, and he didn't push the matter. But Guyuk was aware of the refusal - and the insult. But, Guyuk began to run the Empire. There is, in the Vatican, a letter he sent to the Pope, ordering to come to Karakorum, bringing the crowned heads of Europe with him, to submit. The letter came to nothing, in part because if he wanted to attack Europe again, he would have to go through Batu's Ulus. And there, his welcome would be doubtful.

But perhaps he had Europe in mind, when he decided to march against Batu, and settle their feud. He raised an army, and headed west. But Batu was ready, having been warned by Sorghatani, and Guyuk died on the march [there is some suggestion that Sorghatani had him poisoned]. In any case, the briefest of the Great Khanates was over, and once again, a Kuriltai was summoned, this time by Guyuk's widow and regent. But this one didn't go as planned. Batu attended, in force, and the successor to the throne this time was no member of the House of Ogedai. Guyk's successor, with batu's backing, was Mongke Khan, son of Tolui. The Supreme leadership of the Mongol Empire, bequeathed by Genghis Khan to his son Ogedai was now in the hands of the son of Tolui.

One of the proscriptions that Genghis Khan had laid down was that Mongol did not shed Mongol blood [in fact enemy royalty had to be put to death in a manner that did not shed their blood]. Mongke disregarded that proscription with a vengeance. He tried and executed numerous 'enemies', and perceived rivals. He tried the men, his mother the women. Among those who died were Guyuk's widow, her female companions, Kadaan, the luckless Siremun, and numerous others. His throne secure, Mongke settled into his Khanship.

And a busy Khanship it was. An attempt by the Ismaili Order of the Assassins to kill him, led Mongke to send a huge army under his brother Hulegu, to sort them out, and complete the conquests of Muslim lands. Over a period of some three years, Hulegu broke the Assassins, sacked Baghdad, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate, took Syria, and entered the Holy Land. A second brother, Kublai, who had been ruling in northwestern China, continued his campaign, while Mongke himself led an army further south.

Mongke died on campaign [the last Khan to do so]. And now the fissures that had deepened in the Batu-Guyk rivalry, and the rivalry between the houses of Ogedai and Tolui descended to within the house of Tolui itself. There were two claimants to the supreme throne, Kublai, and his brother, Ariq Boka. Each was proclaimed by a Kuriltai, Kublai in north China, Ariq Boka in Mongolia. The result was civil war in the homeland [Hulegu backed Kublai]. Kublai won, his brother was taken prisoner [and mysteriously died soon after]. But the damage was immense. Kublai used not only Mongol but Chinese troops to defeat his brother. And a sizable number of Mongols regarded him as more Chinese than Mongol [the irregularity of his being proclaimed Great Khan in China being an example. And the descendants of Ogedai resented the fact that the Supreme Khanship was now wholly a Toluid enterprise. So Kaidu Khan, of the house of Ogedei, began a log war against both Kublai Khan, and the Chagatids.

And now, despite the Jasagh's demands for religious freedom, religion entered the picture [at least as an excuse for war]. Hulegu [and Kublai] was a Buddhist. Hulegu's wife was a Nestorian Christian. So was Sorghatani, and Kublai's wife. But Berke, Khan of the golden horde upon the death of Batu had converted to Islam. And with him went the Golden Horde. And while Berke, pursuant to Mongke's orders furnished troops for Hulegu's campaign, he was outraged that Hulegu had sacked Baghdad and put the Caliph to death. Plus there was the horse pasturage of Azerbaijan to consider. The result was that Hulegu never made it to the kriltai that elected his brother. He was, instead, in a full blown war with his cousin. And his war against the Muslims came to a halt at a place south of the Dead  Sea called Ain Jalut. In 1260, the residual force he left under his general Kitbuqa was defeatedby the Mamelukes of Egypt, Hulegu's target. The Mongol high water mark in the west had been reached. and within two generations, the Il-Khans of Persia converted to Islam.

The Mongol empire reached its zenith under Kublai Khan. He completed the conquest of sung china in 1279, reuniting China until today, and founded the yuan dynasty. He reformed the government, and expanded commerce, rebuilding a land that had gone through some sixty years of war. He had an incredibly long reign. But by the end of it, several of his military ventures had failed [two invasions of Japan] or stalled [Indochina and Burma], and China's economy was in ruins.

On the wider scale, Kublai had become what many of the 'wild' Mongols feared - a Chines emperor instead of a Mongol Khan. He had gone the way of the Khitans and the Jurchids, not the way of his grandfather. And as he aged, and became more identified with the Chinese, his writ as Great Khan was increasingly ignored. the Golden horde went its own way, and would survive in Russia until the early 15th century when it would be destroyed from, of all places, Samarkand, by Tamerlane. The Il-Khanate, like the remnants of the Golden Horde would become vassals of the Ottoman Turks. The Yuan dynasty would be overthrown by the Ming and driven back to the Steppe, until as vassals of the Manchus, they would again ride into China in 1644, and again be absorbed.

Bu in the wilds of Afghanistan, and the other 'stans, a descendant of Genghis named Babur, driven from his home range by the Kirghiz, would ride south east, invade northwestern India, and begin the establishment of the Mughal empire. But that's another tale for another time. 

It is probably one of the most famous formations in the history of the Roman Army. Formed in Spain by Julius Caesar himself, it fought from Portugal to Gaul, to Greece to the Middle East. It was immortalized in "The Gallic Commentaries". And it was the unit that laid siege to Masada.

When Caesar, as part of the deal with Pompey and Crassus that gave him the proconsulship of Cisalpine Gaul, traveled to his new post, he first stopped in Iberia, in particular Spain, to recruit a legion to add to the three [VIIth, VIIIth, and IXth] given to him by Pompey. The result was yet another 'Spanish' legion, this one the Xth. And since he recruited it, the Xth was known as "Caesar's legion.

He blooded the legion campaigning in Luisitania, present day Portugal, fighting the tribes near the Serra D'Estrela [Mountain of the Star, Portugal's highest mountain]. So Caesar and his troops may well have battled my paternal ancestors [my father's family is from that region]. In any case, having trained them up, Caesar took the Xth to Transalpiner Gaul, where they participated in the campaigns against the Helvetii, Ariovistus the German, the Belgae, and eventually the entire Gallic revolt.

The Xth was at Alesia, and by that time, two things were obvious. First, they were a crack unit, and second, they were Caesar's "go to guys". Whether under his personal direction, or under his most trusted deputy, Titus Labienus, the Xth got some of the most difficult assignments, and was often in the most critical spot on the battlefield.

When Caesar crossed the Rubicon with the XIIIth Legion, initiating the Roman Civil War that made him undisputed master of the Roman world, the Xth soon followed. and at the battle of Pharsalus in Greece, in which Caesar crushed Pompey, it was the Xth on his right that carried the day, beating Caesar's former deputy, Labienus and Pompey's cavalry like a drum, before engaging Pompey's infantry and storming Pompey's camp, sending Pompey in flight to Egypt, and assassination at the hands of the Egyptians.

The Xth Legion fought in the subsequent Civil Wars between first Antony and Octavian against Brutus, Cassius and the other Caesar assassins, and then in the war between Antony and Octavian.Iit was in the latter war that the Xth backed the wrong horse. They stood with Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. And Antony lost the battle, then the war. Cleopatra lost both - and her kingdom. Both lost their lives as suicides.

The Xth legion paid for abandoning the house of Caesar. While they were not disbanded, they were never again transferred out of the Middle East. And they were in the Middle East for the Jewish Revolt that started around 66 A.D. And they stormed Jerusalem for Titus. And after Jerusalem fell, the Xth Legion built its camp on the ruins of the Temple.

But the Xth didn't stay in Jerusalem long. Under their legate, Flavius Silva, the Xth was sent into the desert near the Dead Sea. to a place called Masada.

Masada was a combination summer palace/ fortress built by Herod the Great. It had been seized by Sicarii, Jewish Zealot rebels. Silva was ordered to take it, and extinguish the last ember of revolt. It was a daunting task.

Masada was on a butte, accessible by only by a goat track called the snake's path. It had cisterns with enough water, and stored food to withstand a lengthy siege. On top of that, a besieger needed to bring water at least twenty miles, and other supplies even further.

The first thing Silva did was built a wall entirely around Masada. the troops built it while wearing their armor. Silva' wall served two purposes. First to prevent reinforcements or re-supply from reaching the rebels [highly unlikely in any case], and to serve notice on the Zealots that none on Masada was going to escape.

Silva next reconnoitered the entire hill. And he found a weakness, a natural spur that could be used to build a ramp to the top, a ramp that could support a siege tower to break the wall on that side of the fortress. And build a ramp the Xth did, with massive levies of Jewish slaves. And when it was complete, the Romans hauled their siege tower up the ramp and broke through the outer wall [the Zealots had built a second wooden wall behind it, which the Romans then set fire to]. And according to Josephus, the only author of a history of the so-called Jewish War, the Romans then went back down the ramp, to let the fire burn out, and returned the next day to find all the Zealots dead by their own hand. At least that's Josephus' story. Personally, I think the romans stormed Masada that night, and those they didn't kill, they enslaved. Why? A dearth of bodies. Archaeolgy has uncovered less than ten skeletons from the environs of Masada. Since they re-garrisoned the fortress after the siege, they would have removed the corpses if only for health and sanitation. I doubt they would have cremated, or honorably buried the hundreds of corpses. Yet the area of Masada provides no evidence of them.

Be thast as it may, the Xth continued to soldier on in the Middle East until it faded from the record books. But for over a century, it was one of the most ferocious tools in the roman military arsenal, a legion with an unrivaled combat record on three continents - Caesar's Own - the Xth.

They fought the longest war against the U.S. in our history. Their operations covered parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Texas and old Mexico. At one time one quarter of the total strength of the United states Army sought to engage six of them in a pursuit that covered three states, and never made contact. they were the Apache.

Apache was not the name they gave themselves. Depending on the band, they called themselves Dineh, Tinde, Inde or a variation of one of them. Their name for themselves meant "The People" [as most tribal names meant]. 'Apache' was a Zuni word. And it meant 'Enemy'. And it is by THAT name that they have come down to us in history.

The Apache originated in the Pacific northwest, probably in Alaska. They were, and are Athabaskan speakers, like the Haida and other northwest Indians. And somewhat like the wanderings of the Celtic tribes through Europe, the Apache journeyed southward, through the Rockies, and possibly the Black hills [making enemies of some poverty stricken Indians who, as the Comanche, would become some of their fiercest antagonists], finally settling in western Texas.

The Apache in Texas led a semi-agrarian life. they had fixed villages, which they farmed, and still hunted game, including Bison. And there they might have remained, except for the arrival of the Comanche. The Comanche had metamorphassized with the coming of the horse. Referred to as 'finest light cavalry in the world", they became the "Lords of the southern Plains". And one of their first orders of business was to attack the hated Apache. and being sedentary, the apache were easy to attack. The result was with the exception of the Jicarilla Apache, the Kiowa-Apache, the Lipan Apache, and the Mescalero Apache, the Apache were driven out of Texas, and into Sonora, New Mexico and Arizona. And there they stayed.

But the Apache, even in defeat, were not unified. With a social structure based on bands, they were constantly at war with each other [which greatly facilitated hiring Apaches to scout against their cousins for the U.S. Army]. In fact the Navajo, a separate tribe today was originally one of the largest Apache bands, and became one of their greatest enemies, allying with the Spanish and Comanche to drive the apache west in New Mexico.. The Apache division tended to run north-south. The northern Apache comprised the tonto, the white Mountain, the Arivipa and some others. The southern Apache, the Apache of the movies, and the "A" Team of the tribe were the Chiricahua, and included the Chohoken, the Chihenne, the Nedni and Bedenoke. And to their east were the Mescalaro and the Lipan [Jicarilla and Kiowa-Apache played non-existent to miniscule roles in the Apache Wars.

Being driven west changed the Apache. They became, in a sense, mountain Indians, preferring to live higher up the topography. they also became masters of the arid environment they now lived in. And they became masters of guerilla war.

Apaches did not see the purpose of counting coup, galloping around wagons whooping and charging. They seldom scalped. Indifferent horsemen at best [they carried little of the reverence Plains tribes did for the horse. They would ride one to death, eat it, make a canteen out of its intestines, and steal another] They preferred the ambush, and fighting on foot [They were trained to run all day with a mouthful of water, and it was claimed they could outrun a horse uphill]. The long distance raid [they regarded northern Mexico as a Wal-Mart] was a specialty.

Apache war parties were often small, but for a major operation, such as Janos, or the siege of Tuscon, various bands [normally Chiricahua bands] would come together under a paramount war leader. Initially that chief was Mangas Coloradus, chief of the Chihenne. Mangas, a giant of a man [well over 6' tall]was paramount not only because of his prowess in war, but also because of his daughters. He had several and married them off to other chiefs, creating a family bond on top of the tribal one. And his most famous son-in-law, the Apache who would supplant him was the chief of the Chohoken, Cochise.

The first contact between the U.S. Army and the Apache went smoothly enough. We were fighting a war with the Mexicans, one of the Apaches' traditional enemies, and they were fighting them at the same time. But friction developed with the Treaty of Gudalupe-Hidalgo, since one of its provisions made our Army the guarantor of Mexican freedom from Indian attacks [Apache and Comanche]. the apaches couldn't understand why they had to stop their forays into Mexico.

Much of apache war was the result of the revenge raid. they traded with some Mexican towns, but Mexican state governments offered bounties for apache scalps, including women and children [Geronimo lost his wife and children this way]. And a massacre, to the Apache, required a response. And that response required murder, mayhem and torture [and the Apache were the ultimate masters of torture], whereas a raid to steal livestock, goods and slaves would be more measured in its violence.

And so, most of our early contact with the Apache was fairly low key. Until the flogging of Mangas Coloradus, and the taking of Mickey Free.

Gold was found on Chihenne land, and miners rushed in. When confronting some of them, Mangas was grabbed, tied to a tree and horsewhipped. they then foolishly let him go. At about the same time [1860], a half breed boy from southern Arizona was kidnapped by Tonto Apaches on a raid, and carried north. A Lieutenant named Bascomb met Cochise under a flag of truce and demanded the boy back. when Cochise told Bascomb, truthfully, that his people didn't have Free, Bascomb seized Cochidse, his brother, and another Apache. Cochise escaped, captured a stagecoach and offered to swap the passengers for his brother and the others. Bascomb hanged them. Cochise tortured his prisoners to death. the war was on.Cochise brought Mangas, the Chihenne and other bands into his war. the Apache fought one battle [Apache Pass], and lost [They were dug in on high ground behind breastworks, but the Army had artillery, which they had never seen]. From then on, it was siege, ambush and hit and run raids. They forced the evacuation of the mining town of Tubac. they had Tuscon surrounded. they stopped the Butterfield stage from running. And then the U.S. Army left to go east and fight the civil War. Desperate, the citizens of Arizona invited the confederacy in. Cochise whipped them, too. And with the approach of Union troops from California, and the loss at Glorietta Pass, the Texans withdrew.

By 1870, Cochise, still undefeated, was growing weary. Mangas Coloradus was dead, lured into a parlay under a flag of truce and murdered. So Cochise used a burgeoning relationship with one tom Jeffords to put out peace feelers. As a result, he met MG O.O. Howard. Allowed to pick his own reservation [the Dragoon Mountains], and his own Indian agent [Jeffords], Cochise made peace, a peace that held to his deasth.

But peace didn't last. Trouble arose with the Chihenne over Ojo Casliente, the "Warm Springs" and where their reservation should be. The government wanted to concentrate the Apaches at San Carlos. But the best areas were already settled by the northern Apache bands, and they were enemies of the Chihenne and Chohoken. The Chihenne  kept trying to alternately go back to Ojo Caliente, or alternatively make a go of San Carlos. they failed at both, and losing hope, Victorio went to war.

Victorio was probably the ablest Apache war chief. He had a firm grasp of both tactics and operational strategy. He raided both sides of the border, and would retreat to Mexico if things got hot. It was during one such 'breather' that Ulzana, a brother of Chihuahua, led five braves on a three state raid that netted some 300 horses, and a pursuit by 5,000 troops that never made contact.

Victorio was assisted by Nana, a 90 year old chief, Chihuahua, Ponce and a group of rising subchiefs. He was also accompanied by his sister, Lozen, a warrior maiden. Lozen supposedly had 'power' that let her sense the approach of enemies. She was also an excellent horse thief. Unfortunately for Victorio, Lozen wasn't with him at Tres Castillos [a geographical feature called 'Three Hills']. Victorio's latest attmpt to cross the border into the U.S. had been stopped by Benjamin Grierson and his 10th Cavalry at a Texas waterhole.

Caught napping at Tres Castillos [Victorio was famous for always having a back way out. Here there was none], Victorio was surrounded by the Mexican Army, and killed in battle.

But while Victorio's war was dying, trouble flared up in Arizona, when the U.S. tried to force the Chohoken onto San Carlos. Compounding the problem, Cochise's successor, his elder son, Taza, died after a trip to Washington. His second son, Naiche, fellunder the spell of a warrior/Shaman with the power to avoid bullets. his name was Geronimo [his real name was Goyalthe - "He Who Yawns"].

Cochise's people didn't take well to San Carlos, and thus began a series of breakouts, raids and skirmishes that would last some fifteen years.

The Army sent in George Crook, a man who had more experience fighting Indians than anyone else in the Army. Crook immediately hired northern Apache scouts to hunt their southern brothers. He lightened the cavalry units he had, using mule trains instead of wagons, and kept his troops in the field for much longer periods of time. and he had success, time and again. But each time, the same thing happened. The hostiles were brought in, re-settled, stirred up, and took to the brush. Setting the spark could be as little as forbidding a Tiswin drunk, or telling the braves to stop beating their wives. Or it could be the killing of a Holy Man during a fracas at Turkey Creek, and the murder of troopers by Apache Scouts. the result was always the same. More burning, murder, and looting over vast distances, and an enemy that disappeared to the eyes of all but the Apache Scouts.

Crook brought Naiche and Geronimo to bay one last time. He agreed to let them and the rest of the chiefs follow him back to Arizona [they were in Mexico]. Chihuahua honored his word, as did several others. But Naiche and Geronimo fled back to the Sierra Madre. And Crook was relieved of his command.

Crook's replacement was Nelson A. Miles, an Indian fighter with experience on the Northern Plains against the Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho and Nez Perce. Adamant in his certitude that HE knew how to fight Indians, he sent the Apache Scouts back to the reservation, got rid of the mule teams and went after the Apache the same way he had the Northern tribes. And the result was a big fat 'zero'. The Apaches ran rings around the Army, Miles couldn't find them, let alone bring them to battle; and so, quietly, he brought back the scouts. Except now Chiricahua provided the scouts. Even they were sick of Geronimo. And a deputation of Lt. Charles Gatewood, and tweo Apche scouts found Geronimo in the Sierra Madre with his band of some 20 followers. And the warriors had had enough. they refused Geronimo's order to kill the truce party, and with support gone, Geronimo agreed to meet Miles in Skeleton Canyon in the U.S. where he, Naiche and his band [including Lozen] surrendered, with the understanding that after two years in Florida, they would be returned to Arizona.

But the government lied. They weren't allowed back to Arizona for almost twenty years, To add perfidy to dishonesty, the government shipped ALL the Chiricahua, including the Apache scouts with them. The Apache wars were over.

The Apche were moved, eventually from Florida to Alabama [Lozen died there], and then, eventually, to the reservation at Ft. Sill, where the resident tribe, the Comanche, welcomed their old enemies. Geronimo died there, after falling off a horse into a puddle in a rainstorm while drunk, and getting pneumonia [He had marched in Teddy Roosevelt's inauguration with Quanah Parker and Rain In The Face, and unsuccessfully petitioned Roosevelt to return the Chiricahua to their homeland].

The Apache were not allowed to return to Arizona until the twentieth century. Naiche became an able chief, once removed from Geronimo's baleful influence. Chihuahua led an exemplary life. And the Apache have gone on to serve in the military they fought so long with devotion and distinction.

But they are best remembered as peerless in war, unbroken in adversity. Or,as Crook described them [and the neighboring Yavapai], "Tigers in human form".

They are forever linked with the Northern Plains, "Dances with Wolves", and Custer's Last Stand. they were one of the greatest practitioners of war on the Plains, and had an enviable record in fighting with the U.S Army. They supplied western history and lore with some of its greatest Indian figures: Red Cloud, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse. And yet the Sioux were not native to the Plains. They were woodland Indians from Minnesota, and they first entered western history when one branch of the tribe, The Lakota migraterd west, both for hunting of buffalo, and to escape the pressure from theiretter armed adversaries to the east, the Ojibway or Chippewa.

There were three principal branches of the Sioux [THAT name was an abbreviation of the Ojibway name for them, "Snake"]. the Dakota [also known as the Santee] stayed in Minnesota. The Nakota ranged to their west. But it is the Lakota ["Allies"] with which we are most familiar, and which we associate the words Sioux and Dakota [wrongly] with.

The Lakota were organized in a confederation of bands [like most tribes]. There were the Oglala, Hunkpapas, Sans Arcs, Two Kettle, Minneconjou, and Blackfeet [not to be confused with the tribe to their northwest].  They cooperated in fighting their enemies, and sharing their hunting grounds. They allied with certain tribes [the Cheyenne and Arapaho], and made war on almost everyone else [the Crow, Shoshone, Nez Perce, Pawn, Mandan, Hidasta]. And the fighting was generally over the home range of the northern buffalo herd, and was fought over hundreds of years.  Thus the Lakota drove the Kiowa out of the Black Hills around 1775, and drove the Crow off the last of the Powder river Buffalo range one hundred years later [while they were still engaged in hostilities with us.

The U.S.- Sioux history was stormy, to say the least. In 1862, while the Civil War raged, fed up with injustice, crooked Indian agents and poor behavior by many whites, the Santee [Dakota], in Minnesota went to war under their chief, Little Crow. The war was bloody. And when it was over, Abraham Lincoln commuted the death sentences imposed on all but 38 of the Indians sentenced to hang [Little Crow was shot to death while picking berries after a year on the run by a Minnesota farmer]. At least one of the Indians who survived was a chief named Inkapuda, who would appear later in history, on the other side of the Mississippi.

Relations with the Lakota fared little better. And the Lakota usually came out on top. Just before the Civil War, a Mormon traveler's cow wandered into a Lakota camp, and one of the warriors, as a joke, treated it like a bison, and killed it with arrows.

A detachment of soldiers under a lieutenant showed up, demanding the Indian responsible be turned over. the Chief, either Ten Bears or Standing Bear offered recompense. The argument grew heated, shots were fired and the chief was killed. At that point the Sioux killed all the soldiers. they then left. One of the children who observed the battle was a boy called 'Curly'. He would grow up as Crazy Horse.

During the Civil War, there was little conflict between the Whites and the Sioux on the northern Plains. Lakota were active, however, on the southern plains, where, in support of their Cheyenne allies, they made war to avenge the Sand Creek massacre. Sioux warriors raided the length and breadth of Kansas and Colorado with the Cheyenne, and got their first taste of the U.S. Army on the southern Plains after the war. They weren't impressed.

Hancock's war, named for the U.S general commanding the operation was a fiasco. Fresh from the Civil War, the Union officers, including Hancock and LTC George Armstrong Custer, had to adjust on the fly to an enemy who:[a] wouldn't stand and fight set piece battles, and [b, could ride rings around them. Custer learned his business [albeit with a year's suspension thrown in] Hancock never did. But when the smoke cleared, the Southern Cheyenne surrendered [numbers of their tribesmen opted to go north with the Lakota, and eventually, became so close in speech and manner to them that the southern Cheyenne couldn't understand them].

The next go-round with the Sioux was Red Cloud's War, which the Sioux won. Highlighted by the Fetterman massacre, and unrelenting organized and persistent pressure from the Indians, the Army abandoned a route to the Montana gold fields called the Bozeman Trail, and the forts they had built to protect the Trail before Red Cloud signed a treaty, and went on the reservation. From the Army's perspective worse was yet to come.

Following a period of peace, the Army was ordered into the Black hills to survey and explore. There were several battles between the Army [Custer], and the Sioux, which could best be characterized as draws, although the Indians failed to stop the survey o the exploration. But the discovery of gold led to an influx of miners which the Army, despite its best efforts couldn't stem. On top of that, there was a recession in the country, and the government wanted the gold.

The result was an effort to get a new treaty giving the Black hills to the U.S. for cash. Red Cloud and many of the reservation Indians were amenable, if the price was right. But there were a number of non-reservation Indians, led by the Hunkpapa Holy Man, Sitting Bull, who lived 'wild' on the area designated for the Sioux by Red Cloud's Treaty, but not on the reservations. They refused to sign. So, in the winter of 1875, they were ordered onto the reservations by the end of January, or be treated as 'hostiles'. Aside from the impracticality of their being able to get to the reservations by the deadline, they had no intention of doing so. It would be war.

The Army's campaign started with a blunder of major proportions. A winter attack was made on a Cheyenne village. Result? The Cheyenne lined up with the Sioux [as did the Arapaho]. But as Spring came, and the U.S. Army took the field, the Sioux on the northern Plains prepared, unknowingly, for their zenith.

The Army moved against the hostiles in three columns: Gibbon from the west, Terry [with Custer] from the East, and Crook from the south. Crook was hit first. Crazy Horse led some 1,000 to meet him, engaged Crook at the rosebud, and but for the bravery of Crook's Shoshone and Crow scouts, would have thrashed him. As it was, Crook withdrew, but failed to tell either Gibbon, or Terry, of his curtailment of operations.

Within a week, the Sioux, Cheyenne and Arapaho had killed Custer, and over 200 of his men, forced the rest into a defense, and rode away, breaking down into smaller bands as they did. For the rest of the summer, Terry and Gibbon followed the Indians, but never seemed to catch them.

But that breather had ominous overtones. The Army gathered its strength of a winter campaign, bringing Nelson Miles, Wesley Merritt and Ranald Mackenzie into play. And they obtained results. By the Spring of 1877, the Cheyenne and Crazy Horse surrendered [Crazy Horse would be killed on the reservation shortly after his surrender], and Sitting bull had fled to Canada. Within months, Northern Cheyenne and Sioux were scouting for the Army against the Nez Perce. And the Northern Plains were peaceful until a Paiute named Wovoka proclaimed a new religion, characterized by a "Ghost Dance", which would bring back the buffalo, and all the ancestors, with the concurrent disappearance of the whites. Several Sioux traveled to the site of Wovoka's preaching, and came back with word of the new religion, but with one important change. Wovoka's religion was not violent. When he said the whites would be gone, he mean they'd just leave or disappear. The Sioux who brought the Ghost Dance back claimed Ghost Dancers medicine shirts would make them immune to gunfire. And they preached a more proactive removal of the whites.

Tensions began to run high. Sitting Bull, back from Canada voiced approval of the Ghost Dance. Indian police sent to arrest him wound up in a gun battle with his supporters. Sitting Bull and his son were among those killed.

And the last tragic act of the Ghost Dance was Wounded Knee. the Army [including the 7th Cavalry] was sent to bring a band of Sioux who had fled the reservation to avoid trouble, and  some Ghost Dancers back to the reservation. During a search for weapons, a Sioux fired his rifle. As the firing spread, Hotchkiss guns on the ridge above the Indian camp opened fire. Many of the Indians, including the Minneconjou chief, Big Foot, were killed. It was a sad end to a proud People and warrior tradition. Almost unbeatable until the winter of 1876, the Sioux found themselves against an implacable enemy who fought according to his own schedule, and in all weather. And for the first time since they debouched onto the Plains in the 1700s, the Sioux fought someone who treated them like they treated others, someone they couldn't defeat.

They were expert riders. But so were the Huns. They were famous as bowmen. But so were the Parthians. They built an empire. But so did the Persians.  And yet, one of the great questions is "How"? For they were illiterate, lived on the margins of civilization, were weakened by a culture of internecene warfare, and were surrounded either by inhospitable terrain, or well armed civilizations.

The answer is twofold: the genius that was Genghis Khan, and the army he created that didn't suffer a major defeat until 1260. Genghis Khan has been discussed in parts 1 and 2 of "The Golden Family". But his army deserves a separate treatment.

The popular vision of the Mongol army is comparable to a swarm of locusts with weapons, a cloud or tide of horsemen flowing over the land with little rhyme nor reason. Nothing could be farther from the truth.

The Mongol Army was organized on the decimal system. the smallest unit was the Arban [10 men], which elected their own commander. The next higher unit was the Jagun [100]. Above that was the Minghan [1,000], which was the basic maneuver element of the Mongol Army [the equivalent of the modern brigade]. And above that was the Tuman [10,000 men], the Mongol Division, commanded by a Mongol general [as was the Minghan] chosen by the Khan himself. And in the field, Minghans and Tumen might be tasked with independent operations [see the 'Great Raid' by Subedei and Jebe Noyon, the diversionary attack on Poland in 1241 by Buri and Kadaan, and the battle of Liegnitz], or be part of the Ordu [army, from which we got 'horde] itself.

The Mongol Army operated in a standard formation in moving to contact, vanguard, left wing, right wing, rear guard, and the center [which would be where the Khan and his Kashik  [body guard/ staff school] would be. When contact with an enemy was made, the portion of the aemt making contact would immediately become the vanguard, and the entire army would pivot to that reality. Each Tuman consisted of 40% heavy cavalry, and 60% light cavalry. Each soldier rode to war with a string of anywhere from three to eight horses [usually five]. All were equipped with hard rations [yogurt cheese, kumiss, dried meats], a sewing kit, a file for arrowheads and weapons, a sword, mace or axe, one or more raw silk shirts [arrows would drive the silk into a wound without the silk breaking, allowing an easier arrow withdrawal]. If the soldier was assigned to the heavy cavalry, he was also equipped with a lance with a hook below the point [to pull an enemy off his horse, lamellour armor and a helmet. His horse might also be armored. If assigned to the light cavalry, the soldier might have a helmet, but more likely a hat or cap, and no armor.

All Mongols carried the bow. It was their main weapon and devastatingly effective. Like all horse nomads' bows, the bow was compact, and recurved. It was not a self bow, but a compound bow, made of wood, animal horn, sinew, laquer and glue made from fish. It was exceptionally powerful, capable of easily outdistancing a long bow, and shot a variety of arrows [hunting, armor piercing, whistling -for signaling, etc.] . Mongols went on campaign with at least two quivers of arrows on their horse.

And it is here we begin to see some differences between the Mongols, and their cousins, the Huns. Tthe Mongol Army had a supply train. Using oxen and Bactrian camels, the supply corps. carried thousands of arrow bundles to be made available just to the rear of the fighting, for units to replenish their quivers [they also carried food, uniform parts, clothing, etc.].

When the Mongols first invaded Jin China, they were stymied by the walled cities. By the time Genghis Khan invaded Khwaresm, the Mongol Army had a siege train of Chinese engineers. And by the time they invaded Russia in 1237, no city could stand against them. It appears they also introduced the west to explosives during their campaigns in Russia and Eastern Europe. They also used some kind of smokescreen [ Liegnitz] in battle.And they brought a medical corps of Chinese doctors with them to render medical aid to their wounded.

Mongol armies moved at speed. Subedei set a record [270 miles in less than three days] that stood until 1940 when Erwin Rommel did 100 miles in a morning on his way to Cherbourg [but his unit was mechanized. And one reason they could do this [aside from switching out horses] was their ability to move at night. Mongol units moving at night used vari-colored lanterns to signal each other [Yes they had a signal corps]. During daylight hours they used signal flags, mirrors, the aforementioned whistling arrows, and a kettle [nacarra] drummer or drummers, mounted on Bactrian camels.

The Mongol officer Corps was largely based on merit. Subedei, the Mongols', and IMHO, history's greatest general was the son of a blacksmith. By breaking up the clans and tribes and 'homogenizing' them during his rise to power,  Genghis was able to utilize the abilities of generals who had been from other tribes [Kerait], clans [Tadijut], or even enemies [Jebe]. He also used his Kashik as a training ground for future officers. A member of his bodyguard, in certain situations, could give orders to a Minghan commander. And if proficient he rose.

The Mongol Army made extensive use of intelligence, both strategic, tactical, economic, political, and social to sow dissension in the enemy they were about to attack, and to formulate a concept of  operations for the campaign. The Mongols preferred the indirect approach, striking from where least expected, both tactically and strategically. They were the masters of the feigned retreat and the ambush. They had standard tactical formations and battle drills, which they used to great effect in utilizing an 'arrow storm' to soften an enemy up before a heavy cavalry charge [see, again, Liegnitz].

From the rise of Genghis Khan until the reign of his successor's successor, the Mongol Empire was the first hyper power that the world had seen until Rome. Mongol armies  had ridden, conquered and spread terror from the Pacific to the Danube, and from Moscow to the Holy Land. Their defeats came from intra-family quarrels and wars, which weakened them in the face of enemies. But they were, and are, history's greatest Army.

'In a galaxy far, far away, a long time ago'. large Star Destroyer passed over our heads in a theater [or so it seemed], in the pursuit of a small ship with the doughy resistance fighter, Princess [and Senator] Leia Organa and the plans for an Imperial weapon system known as the Death Star. And we were off and running on one of the most successful movie franchises in history, a franchise so successful, it has worked its way into our language, our culture and our conscious.

It has given us a fistful of memorable major characters: Leia, Han Solo, Chewbacca, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Yoda, the Laurel and Hardy of outer space [R2D2 and C-3PO], and possibly the greatest screen villain of all time, Darth Vader, Dark Lord of the Sith. It gave us a wheelbarrow full of minor characters, some impressive - Emperor Palpatine, Mace Windu, some not - Jar Jar Binks and those damn Ewoks. And it gave us concepts of good [Jedi], evil [Sith], and everything in between. And it gave us the "Force". But most of all , it gave us fun, and pleasure.

So as a follower of the Sith [as a small government Conservative, you have to pull for a system where two guys rule the galaxy, and both are striving to reduce that number to "One"], may I say, "May The Force Be With You!"

In 20's Chicago, gangland was divided into rival fiefdoms. On the Southside there was the combination [eventually known - to this day - as "The Outfit"]put together by two Brooklyn boys, Johnny Torrio and Al Capone. On the North Side was a mob, principally Irish, run by Charles Dean "Dion" O'Bannion [O'Bannion never referred to himself as, nor used the name 'Dion']. And added to that already volatile mix was the Mafia [run by Sam Merlo], and various independents, including the Genna brothers and some Irish gangs affiliated with Torrio and Capone.

Torrio had a major beef with O'Bannion, over and above territory and bootlegging. O'Bannion had sold Torrio a brewery, and then flipped him in to the police. The result was a conviction, a fine, and the loss of the brewery to Torrio. But, more importantly, he faced the risk of major prison time if he was ever caught and convicted of bootlegging again. So Torrio wanted O'Bannion dead. The problem was Merlo, and the Mafia didn't - at least in the sense that they wanted peace in Chicago.

And thus it stood until Merlo died of cancer. And Torrio swung into action.

When Torrio had been in Brooklyn, he [as had Capone] been a member of the Five Points Gang [along with Lucky Luciano and Frankie Yale [real name 'Uale']. Realizing he would have to reach outside 'the usual suspects' to whack O'Bannion, and who O'Bannion might recognize, Torrio called on Yale. He also called on Albert Anselmi and John Scalise. Both men had already worked for Torrio and Capone [Capone would kill both with a fungo stick in 1929 after he learned they were planning to depose him], but they were Mafioso, so O'Bannion would not be overly wary of them.

Merlo's death was the key to O'Bannion's assassination. O'Bannion's 'front' was a flower shop [Capone's was 'Al Brown's Dry Cleaning']. And all the Chicago mobsters ordered their floral arrangements for Merlo, from O'Bannion.

So it probably didn't cause O'Bannion any concern when Yale, Scalise and Anselmi came in on November 10, 1924 to pick up an arrangement they had ordered on a previous visit for Merlo's funeral. Besides, O'Bannion always carried three handguns on his person at all times, a fact that was well known.

So, as Yale approached O'Bannion, he held out his hand for a handshake, and O'Bannion took it. Unfortunately for O'Bannion, he was right handed. As Yale held his hand in a death grip, Scalise and Anselmit produced handguns of their own, and opened fire. By the time o'Bannion hit the floor he was dead, and the legend of the handshake assassination was born.

Yale returned to Brooklyn [Capone would have him killed when Yale took too great an interest in Chicago], and Chicago returned to open gang war that would last until 1929, and the St. Valentine's Day Massacre. Within two years, Torrio, who had almost been killed by 'Bugs' Moran, and other members of the Northside Mob, 'gave Chicago to the 26 year old Capone, and returned to Brooklyn. And Capone killed every subsequent Northside boss [Hymie Weiss, Vincent 'Schemer' Drucci] except for Moran, who he drove from the city, establishing the Outfit as the onlt criminal power in Chicago. which it is to this day. 

Thank you!!!! How about Watergate? What is your knowledge on that?

For the British Army, the month of May, which had started with an advance into Belgium, was ending with the threat of being surrounded in France by Hitler's rampaging panzers. Britain decided to save what they could, and ordered their troops to Dunkirk, the only Channel port not in German hands [due to a 24 hour 'Halt' order from the high command, for a seaborne evacuation.



One of those units, the Royal Norfolk Regiment was some fifty miles south of Dunkirk when one of their sub-units, some 99 men strong, ran into troops from the 3rd SS Motorized Division. "TOTENKOPF".

The 3rd SS  had been formed by Himmler in an effort to get around the draconian restrictions the German Army placed around recruitment for the Waffen SS. Himmler formed the division from the guard detachments from the Concentration camps [the purpose for which those regiments had been formed]. He then replaced the now militarized guards with middle aged men from the Allgemeine SS.

But the 3rd SS was different from her two sister formations, the 1st SS regiment, the LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOL HITLER, and the SS VERFUNGESTRUPPEN [eventually the 2nd SS Division, DAS REICH]. First the military training for the 3rd was somewhat curtailed. Second the troops had been indoctrinated, in their former 'job', to display absolute brutality to those in their charge. Third, the divisional commander, SS Gruppenfuehrer Theodore Eicke was no soldier [he had been a paymaster in WWI], but the former commandant of Dachau, and the current inspector general of the entire Concentration Camp system. A combat soldier he was not.

The Norfolks clashed with the TOTENKOPF at a farm , fighting from, and holding the Germans off for the entire afternoon from, the barn.

But eventually the British ran out of ammo, and expecting honorable treatment as POWs, they surrendered, white flag and all. They were then searched, marched to a field along the side of the barn to a freshly dug ditch, and machinegunned to death. There were two survivors, both wounded. Eventually they surrendered to the German Army, where they were accorded the correct treatment.

One of the two was repatriated to Britain in 1943 [he had a very severe leg wound], but when he reported the massacre, no one believed him. It wasn't until later, when his fellow POW came home that the La Paradis massacre gained credence.

The massacre raised a amajor tempest in the German military. German Army [and Waffen SS] generals demanded that the perpetrators be punished [even some 3rd SS officers wanted them punished]. But Himmler refused, and declared it Top Secret, and not to be discussed. And there it rested until after the war.

One of the German officers captured in Norway was an SS Obersturmbannfuehrer named Fritz Knochlein. Knochlein had been the company commander that day at La Paradis. The British hanged him.

The 3rd SS, eventually upgraded to a Panzer division, spent the rest of the war on the Eastern Front, fighting at the Demjansk encirclement, and Kharkov and Kursk. They became a crack outfit, but never emerged from their background when it came to prisoners.

Theodre Eicke became a competent general. He was killed on the Eastern Front when the Storch aircraft he was flying in was shot down.

La Paradis was not the last atrocity committed in the west. At approximately the same time, the LEIBSTANDARTE shot some prisoners at Wormhout. In 1944, DAS REICH killed over 600 people when they wiped out the town of Ouradour sur Glane.

 

On this date in 1780, some 300 to 350 American soldiers were fleeing the shambles of the American failure in South Carolina. They were the last organized force of Continental troops in the state. and pursuing them was the American Legion, a mixed unit of cavalry and light infantry, composed mostly of loyalist Americans, commanded by LTC Banastre Tarleton.

Tarletton had had an interesting and [up to that point] successful war in America. Arriving as a Cornet [2d Lieutenant], he had started the war with a failed British operation in the South, but then joined GEN Howe in New York. He led a unit that captured American GEN. Charles Lee [a former British officer and an opponent of George Washington, who relieved him at Monmouth], fought at Brandywine, and in 1780, returned with his legion to South Carolina.

Tarleton closed on the Americans at Waxhaws. they refused to either halt, or surrender, so Tarleton attacked. So far  all well and good. At some point, the American commander began efforts to surrender. At that point two things occurred, one clear, one obscure. The clear was a massacre of the Americans trying to surrender. Tarleton's raiders killed men with their arms in the air, men with no weapons, men on their knees. The obscure was 'why'. According to Tarleton, and some of his men, Tarleton's horse was shot out from under him during Buford's attempt to surrender, and Tarleton's men, thinking him dead as a result of perfidy, went berserk. According to surviving coloniakls, not so much. What was clear is that the American force of 300-350 lost over 100 dead, 150 seriously wounded, and 200 captured. Buford's force had ceased to exist.

So Tarleton had achieved his mission, at the loss of some 5-10 dead, and less than 20 wounded. But news of the massacre rallied masses of South Carolinians to the rebel cause, with guerilla bands springing up all over the area [Thomas Sumter, Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox"]. Tarleton fought them all. He never caught up with Marion, swapped victories and defeats with Sumter, and alienated many Southerners with his heavy handed confiscations and occupation policies.

 But he was Lord Cornwallis' favorite, helping to rout the Continentals at Camden, and sending Horatio Gates on a 160 mile ride out of the battle, and the American Army. And it was Tarleton that Cornwallis tapped to lead his legion [reinforced with British regulars] after Daniel Morgan when the new Southern commander , Nathaniel Green, split his army.

Tarleton pursued Morgan to a place called Hanna's Cowpens, or the Cowpens. On January 17, 1781, Morgan offered battle, and Tarleton, exhausted troops notwithstanding, accepted. It was over in some 20 minutes. To American chants of "Waxhaws", Tarleton's force was virtually annihilated. Tarleton escaped with some 200 cavalry, but his infantry and the rest of his cavalry lay either dead, wounded, or captured on the battlefield [Morgan would not allow a massacre of the British and Loyalists].

Tarleton fought at Guilford Courthouse with the rest of the British Army, and joined Cornwallis [who held the field by shelling his own men] in the retreat to Virginia. It was there that Tarleton led a raid that almost succeeded in capturing the rebel governor of Virginia, Thomas Jefferson. Tarleton also forced the Burgesses to disband, capturing 8.

Tarleton finished the war at Glouchester Point, across the Chesapeake bay from Yorktown. He was again wounded fighting French cavalry [He had lost two fingers at Guilford Courthouse], and surrendered after Yorktown fell. Of all the senior British officers in Cornwallis' army, Tarleton had the unique distinction of not being invited to any of the dinner parties the Americans hosted for their former foes. In many cases, the Americans refused to speak to him, except in line of duty [a fate shared, strangely enough, by Benedict Arnold in the British Army].

Tarleton returned to England, became a Member of Parliament from Liverpool, where he vehemently opposed the abolitionists [Liverpool made a lot of money off the slave trade. Tarleton's family had been involved in the trade]. Tarleton also continued to ascend within the British officer corps, eventually making GEN., but he never took the field again. He lobbied for the Peninsular command against Napoleon, but it went to Wellington.

And "Tarleton's Quarter" became part of the American lexicon. At King's Mountain, when Patrick Ferguson and a bunch of Loyalists were trapped on the top of the mountain, surrounded by the rebels from 'over the mountains', they heard "Waxhaws" when they tried to surrender. Ferguson, the man who had once refused to shoot George Washington in the back, was shot out of the saddle, in part because of Banastre Tarleton's battlefield legacy.

In May, 1942, Britain's war had been less than successful. She had been driven from western Europe in 1940, from southeastern Europe and the Aegean in the Spring of 1941, and the Japanese had taken Malaya, Singapore, Burma, and swept the Indian Ocean in early 1942. The only theaters the British were still active in were North Africa, where Rommel was in the process of running them out of Libya for the second time, the Atlantic, where the wolf packs were giving the royal Navy all it could handle, and the air space over western Europe. Morale was low. Very low. And Churchill needed something big. And General Arthur Harris, Chief of Bomber command gave it to him - Operation Millennium.

As with many bomber commanders, Harris was a disciple of Douhet, the Italian air prophet, who preached that wars would be won by fleets of bombers alone [Strangely, the Germans never produced a Harris. the closest they came was their first Air Chief of Staff, Walter Wever, who pushed for four engine heavy bombers up to his death, but only because of their extended range and heavier payloads. And perhaps the Germans never had a Harris because, unlike in Britain, the German Army was the Senior Service, not the stepchild the British Army was when it came to funding and power.

As much as for the public relations aspect, as the actual requirements of the operation, Harris decided on a "thousand plane raid". His first problem was that he didn't have 1,000 front line bombers. He had just north of 400. But Harris was a man not easily deterred. So he stripped his second line and even training formations of their aircraft and aircrew, to be able to field a bomber fleet just north of 1,000 planes. And then he loosed them on Cologne.

the raid was a spectacular success. Industrial and military targets were destroyed, over 400 German civilians were killed, a good portion of the city was put in ruins. And Harris won a gamble. His losses were ridiculously low, causing no significant disruption to his training cadres [Overuse of THEIR training formations, especially the Transport school instructors, had a cumulative and devastating effect on the Luftwaffe's transport and re-supply capability as the war went on].

The raid accomplished several, non-military objectives from Harris' view. First it raised morale in Britain. Second it put Bomber Command on a first name basis with Churchill, getting priority funding. And third, it served as a template for the use of massed bomber formations against large German targets [read 'cities' and 'urban areas'] for the rest of the war. the RAF gave up any thought of precision bombing for the rest of the war [except perhaps, for TIRPITZ]. And as the campaign developed, and was refined, as more heavy Lancasters came on line, so the training squadrons and second line formations were no longer needed, the results became more  horrific. They produced greater destruction, carnage and loss of life [including the highest percentage of lost lives of any British service]. What they did not produce was victory by air alone.

And as the war wore on, Harris found himself in greater and greater opposition to the other service chiefs, and his American Allies when they sought to divert his heavies to operations supporting Allied ground forces. Even Churchill began to back away from Harris. Their denoument was Dresden, a highly successful attack [including American formations] against a very questionable target. Shortly after, Bomber Command stopped the large raids started at Cologne [In reality there was little left to bomb]. But Harris' men paid another price for their success. They were the only not awarded their own campaign ribbon. And Harris, unlike Army counterparts like Slim and Montgomery, unlike Navy counterparts like Tovey, Cunningham and Fraser, unlike fellow RAF officers like Tedder, was never ennobled. And it all began in the skies over Cologne on 30 MAY 1942.

On this date, in 1962 former SS Obersturmbannfuehrer [LTC] Adolf Eichmann is hanged in Tel Aviv, Israel for crimes against humanity. Eichmann, from the SS SD, had been the head of Section 4 B 4 of the Gestapo [Jewish Affairs] during the Holocaust.

Eichmann, born in Germany, raised in Austria, had joined the SS in 1932. He was soon assigned to Heydrich's SD, where his career languished until the Anschluss of Austria.

One of Heydrich's remits was to force the tempo of Jewish emigration from the Reich, which now included Austria. Eichmann, sent ahead, set up a Central Office for Jewish Emigration, by having representatives from every agency necessary to process an emigration application in one building [there are claims from other SS officers that the idea was theirs]. It was a masterstroke. Emigration moved much quicker than it had, even in the Reich. And by concentrating all aspects of the process in one place, Eichmann was able to oversee the operation, 'tweak' its efficiency', and force wealthier Jews to pay extra to allow poorer Jews to pay the exorbitant fees required to emigrate.

Eichmann set up a similar office when the Germans seized Czechoslavakia in 1939, with similar results. And under Heydrich's patronage, his career took off. By 1942, Eichmann was an SS Sturmbannfuehrer [MAJ], and responsible to Heydrich for organizing, and acting as Secretary to, the Wannsee Conference  in Berlin. At that conference, organized along the lines of the Emigration office, but this time involving representatives of the appropriate Reich agencies, Heydrich unfolded the plans for the "Final Solution of the Jewish Problem", i.e, a Nazi euphemism for the Holocaust. Eichmann then distributed edited copies of the minutes to all the participants with orders that they be destroyed after being read [all were, except the copy of Foreign Ministry Undersecretary Martin Luther].

Eichmann became the 'expert' on the Jews in the Gestapo and its parent organization, the RSHA. He studied [with no great success] Hebrew, and interviewed Rabbis with an eye to advancing his career.

But that career took both a hit and a push with Heydrich's assassination in Prague later in 1942. RSHA was run for almost a year by Himmler himself, then taken over by Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Yet while Eichmann had lost his patron, the developing Holocaust allowed Eichmann to use his formidable organizational skills in facilitating the mission of the SS - to kill all the Jews in Europe. Eichmannn ran  the transports, coordinating visits by his assistants to allied and occupied countries to gain access to Jews; to SS, police and military formations, as well as foreign governments to concentrate the Jews near railheads; with the rail systems of the Reich and other countries to transport the Jews to the death camps, work camps, and other execution sites in the east; and with the receiving authorities at the other end.

Eichmann spent a lot of time between 1942 and 1945 on the road, visiting the camps, etc., but his most notorious sojourns occurred in 1944 in Hungary, when he personally supervised the shipment, to their deaths, of some 400,000 plus Hungarian Jews  to Auschwitz.

With the Reich collapsing, Eichmann made his plans. He destroyed, or had destroyed, all photos of himself [except one he missed, given to a mistress - who gave it to the Allies]. He then merged into the masses of surrendering German soldiers in a non SS uniform, and with false papers. Interned by the Americans, who were unaware of who he was, Eichmann, escaped. Eichmann hid for a period of time in Germany itself, as a farm laborer. But when the chance came, and the search for him heated up, Eichmann took the 'rat line', over the Alps to Genoa, and with the help of a Croatian priest, sailed to Argentina on a refugee passport. And there as Rudolfo Klement, he stayed.

Eichmann was eventually joined by his family. And that was a mistake. One of his sons met a girl who recognized him from Germany. When visiting the family, she recognized his father. And soon, the Mossad, Israel's intelligence agency was on his trail.

The Israelis, realizing that Argentina would most likely never extradite Eichmann, kidnapped him instead. He was flown to Israel, where his capture was announced, and a trial was set. It became world famous as the trial of "The Man in the Glass Cage" [the title of a play based on the trial]. The cage, holding Eichmann, was made of bullet proof glass for his protection, and manned by two policemen to protect him. Eichmann was provided with translation head phones, and allowed to freely consult with counsel. the trial was fair, but the result was a foregone conclusion. Refusing Eichmann's 'only following orders' defense, the Court found him guilty, and sentenced him to death by hanging.

On 31 May 1962, former SS LTC Adolf Eichmann was hanged near Tel Aviv. His body was them cremated, the ashes placed aboard an Israeli naval vessel, carried outside Israel's territorial waters, and dumped into the Mediterranean Sea.   

They were a sect of Shiite Muslims that held the Middle East and the Crusader States in fear for over two centuries. They took their name from an Arabic word for hashish, which they used in their recruitment/ brainwashing sessions. They developed political terrorism to unrivaled heights. And their actions led to the destruction of Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate, and almost resulted in the extinction of Muslim power in the world.

The Assassins were the creation of a Hassan al Shabba, a Shiite scholar, and a member of a schismatic sect within a sect of Shiites. Be that as it may, the dominant Muslim power then, as now, were the Sunnis. Shabba realized that he and his followers could not confront the sunnis militarily. Nor could they influence them with their religious arguments. So Shabba resorted to asymetrical warfare to accomplish his goals.

The first step the Ismailis undertook was to acquire defensible  real estate. So they captured/ bought coerced a series of fortresses, but remote fortresses, the most famous being Alamut [in time the head of the order became known as "The Old Man of Alamut"]. Step two required recruitment of assassins. But not merely killers. The Assassins were known for remaining over their victim after a successful hit, and allowing themselves to be killed.

And the way hat was accomplished involved drugging recruits, and taking them, unconscious to the roof of the fortress, where the candidate's idea of paradise [including 72 non-Virgins] awaited him. And after a night of fun and frolic, the candidate awoke back where he was before he passed out, with promises of more to come if he died for the Order.

The preferred weapon of the Assassins was a double edged, curved knife. They were trained extensively in its use, and it was both easy to conceal, and drew no attention when not concealed, in a society of knife carrying tribesman, guards, merchants, etc.

The Assassins also made great use of deep cover [both agents and assassins], and intelligence gathering. Some assassins spent months, if not longer, with their intended victim, waiting only for the order to kill.

Their record of successes was formidable. They penetrated Saladin's inner sanctum and left a knife as a  warning. They murdered both Sunni and Christian leaders in the holy Land. But then, as they say, pride goeth before a fall. And between 1255 and 1258, the Assassins fell far and hard.

For reasons not readily discernable, the Grand Master ordered a team [some say four, some say forty] of his killers to ride to Karakorum and kill Mongke Qa Quan, grandson of Genghis Khan, and Supreme Ruler of the Mongol Empire. They failed.

Mongke responded by sending his brother Hulegu south, with an army of a couple of hundred thousand troops. Hulegu took ALL the fortresses the Assassins held [his job was made easier by his capture of the then Grand Master, and the latter's cooperation, seeking to keep his life (he didn't). And then Hulegu rode south to Baghdad, seat of the Abbasid Caliphate. Hulegu took Baghdad, killed the Caliph, and rode west into Syria, the Holy Land, and eventually the area south of the Dead Sea on his way to Egypt.

Islam was spared by the death of Mongke on campaign in China. The normally extended process of picking a successor was further complicated by a civil war between Hulegu's two brothers, Qublai and Ariq Boka. Hulegu was summoned to help his brother Qublai succeed to the Suprme Khanate. So he left one tuman, under his best general, Kedboga, facing the Muslims while he rode east.

Hulegu never got back to Mongolia. The Golden horde of Russia had converted to Islam under their new Khan, Berke. He was furious that Hulegu had killed the Caliph. On a more practical level, he wanted Azerbaijan [held by Hulegu], for his horse herds. Warfare erupted between the Golden Horde and the Il-Khanate [Hulegu]. And it was while Hulegu was distracted that the Mamelukes of Egypt met, and defeated Kedboga at Ain Jalut in 1260. Mongol power turned in on itself, and Islam was spared.

And the Ismaili? The sect still exists [non-lethally] today. their 'grand master' is known as the Aga Khan. In the 20th century, one of the Aga Khasns was married to Rita Heyworth

William Quantrill, chief of the notorious 'Quantrill's Raiders', at one time 'Primus inter Pares' among the Confederate guerilla chieftains in Missouri, and architect of the raid on Lawrence, Kansas, dies of wounds received in a surprise attack by Union guerillas in Kentucky.

Quantrill, born in Ohio had, at times been a school teacher and a teamster. While employed as the latter, he fell in with southerners on a drive to Utah, and returned to the Kansas-Missouri border as a Southern sympathizer.

When war broke out, Quantrill served, initially, with the Confederate State militia, but after they were driven from the state, Quantrill joined the burgeoning 'bushwhacker' [southern guerillas, as opposed to the 'Jayhawkers, union guerillas from Kansas] movement.

Quantrill showed a real flair for guerilla warfare, and as the war progressed, he showed solid successes, rising in the ranks of Bushwhacker leaders [He was commissioned a Captain under the Partisan Ranger Act by the Confederacy].

Quantrill reached his apogee in 1863 when he led some 450 troops [300 guerillas, 150 regulars -who did NOT take part in the action], against Lawrence, Kansas, the state capitol. During a day of slaughter and flame, the rebels murdered some 160 men and boys, and razed the town. Quantrill re-crossed the border, some 50 miles distant, with the loss of only one man.

Yet by the Spring of 1864, Quantrill's world was in tatters. in the aftermath of Lawrence, and Baxter Springs, Quantrill lost his Captaincy. He also lost his status when his lieutenant, George Todd faced him down for command of his raiders, and 'Bloody Bill' Anderson, one of his subordinates, took his gang and left. Quantrill went north with some six men.

1864 was largely quiet for Quantrill. He cooperated with Anderson and Todd in the follow up ambush to the Centralia Massacre [Anderson's work], and joined in an attack on a Union blockhouse he counseled against [the guerillas lost].

By 1865, Quantrill headed east, abandoning Missouri. Both Todd and Anderson were already dead. Quantrill got as far as a barn in Kentucky where he, and his small band of followers [including Frank James] were surprised by Union guerillas. In their efforts to escape, Quantrill was severely wounded. Taken to a local hospital, Quantrill lingered until June 6th, when, having converted to Roman Catholicism, he died.

And that might have been the endof the story, but for the finding of Quantrill's skull in an Ohio college fraternity house in the early 1960s, where it was used in fraternity rituals. William Clarke Quantrill's skull was buried, with military honors, once recovered.

For the first time since the war of 1812, U.S. sovereign territory is occupied by hostile troops.

As part of the Midway operation, and as the price for their participation, Japanese  Imperial Army troops occupy the two western most Aleutian islands, Attu and Kiska. They do so for two purposes. the first, is to act as a diversion from the centerpiece of the operation, the attack on, and occupation of, the island of Midway. In that they fail, inasmuch U.S. naval codebreakers have already determined Midway is the main objective. Additionally, by the time the Army does occupy the islands, the Imperial Japanese Navy has suffered a defeat of epic proportions, losing the four active carriers of the Kido Butai [KAGA, AKAGI, SORYU AND HIRYU.  The two remaining carriers of the Pearl Harbor attack, SHOKAKU and ZUIKAKU, are in Japan.

The second reason for the occupation is to prevent U.S. air power from attacking Japan from the north; an attack that never takes place.

The U.S army, under GEN Simon Bolivar UIII [the son of the Confederate general of the same name], eventually counterattacks in 1943, but the Japanese are withdrawn by the Navy in heavy fog.

The greatest significance of the Alaska operation for the Japanese, possibly, is the diversion of two light aircraft carriers to cover the invasion. those carriers carried over 20 'Zero' fighters, which turned out to be sorely needed by the Kido Butai further south during the Battle of Midway.

Japan will 'attack the U.S again, later in the war with bomb armed hot air balloons. One will kill several civilians who discover it, downed,  in the Pacific northwest.

On this date in 1967, air and naval elements of the Israeli armed forces attack the U.S.S LIBERTY in international waters in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

The LIBERTY, an electronic surveillance ship, openly displaying American flags and markings is first attacked by Israeli jet aircraft, using missiles and bombs. They also jam her radio signals for help [Rescue aircraft, launched from a U.S carrier when her SOS is received, are recalled by Washington before arriving on scene] Subsequently, she is attacked by Israeli torpedo boats and other naval vessels, receiving at least one torpedo hit. Crewmen in lifeboats are subjected to machine gun fire. When LIBERTY refuses to sink, despite the serious damage from the torpedo, the Israelis withdraw. LIBERTY subsequently makes it to port.

The attack costs the U.S Navy over 30 dead, and over 100 wounded. Israel, claiming the attack was an error, caused by mistaking LIBERTY for an Egyptian vessel, offers almost seven million dollars in compensation. To this day, the cause of the attack haven never been cleared up.

Cochise, chief of the Chohoken Chiricahua Apaches dies on his reservation on 8 JUN 1874. Cochise had risen to the chieftainship before the Civil War, and allied with his father-in-law, Mangas Coloradus, chief of the Chihenne or Mimbreno Chiricahua Apaches, dominated the Chiricahua bands in southeastern Arizona, western New Mexico, and northern Mexico.

Cochise fought one of the longest segments of the U.S-Apache Wars [1860-1872], fighting the U.S. Army, the Confederate Army, settlers, militias and Mexicans, after he, his brother and other notables of his band were taken under a flag of truce during the Bascomb affair. Cochise escaped, but the others did not, and were hanged by the army.

During his war. Cochise [and Mangas] fought one set piece battle [apache Pass], which they lost. But between the Army's withdrawal to fight the civil War, and Cochise's brilliance at asymetrical warfare [only Victorio was better]. the Apaches were more than holding their own when MG O.O. Howard, rode to Cochise's Stronghold with Cochise's friend, Tom Jeffords, to negotiate a peace. Cochise was allowed to pick his own reservation, and Indian agent, Jeffords [memorialized in both the movie and TV series of the same title, "Broken  Arrow"]. Cochise remained at peace until his death, probably from stomach cancer. It was the longest interregnum in the Apache Wars.

Cochise was succeeded first by his eldest son, Tazai, who didn't shortly afterwards. Tazai was succeeded by his younger brother, Naiche, who fell under the influence, for many years, of Geronimo, Naiche eventually grew into his father's mocassins, as they say, when the Apache were allowed to return from their Florida-Alabama  exile after Gerronimo's surrender in 1886.

Wow...great info,  thank you for posting.

By early June, 1863, Robert E. Lee was putting the finishing touches on his planned, second incursion into the territory of the United States. His infantry was concentrating in the north of Virginia, in preparation for moving north into Maryland and Pennsylvania behind the Blue ridge Mountains, and his Cavalry Corps, under MG James Ewell Brown "JEB" Stuart was gathered in the vicinity of Brandy Station, from where it could screen Lee's movement from prying Union eyes, protect the right flank of Lee's army, and gather intelligence on the Army of the Potomac.

Stuart being Stuart, no encampment would be complete without spectacle. so Stuart held not one, but two grand reviews of his cavalry [the second, on June 8th, was for Lee], complete with spit, polish and simulated cavalry charges. The reviews were well attended, with both civilian and military attendees. Unfortunately for Stuart, some of those attendees, unobserved, and uninvited, were scouts for the newly constituted Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac [MG Alfred Pleasanton]. And they rode back to their general [a VERY short distance, and reported on the festivities. and Pleasanton decided to conduct a review of his own.

Up until Joseph hooker's assumption of command of the Army of the Potomac after Fredericksburg, there were two things common to the Union cavalry in the East. First, they were never a unified command, being, rather, parceled out for escort, courier and picket duty, the length and breadth of the Army. Second, they were constantly, and monotonously beaten at every phase of cavalry operations by Stuart's men. To say the Rebels had a moral ascendancy over their blue coated opponent was an understatement. They had an absolute ascendancy.

Hooker started to deal with that by pulling all his cavalry regiments together into brigades and divisions under one headquarters. He then decided to have his cavalry beard the lion, as it were, partially to raise morale, partially to gather intelligence. Hooker was aware Lee was up to something, but he didn't know what it was. And he couldn't commit the Army of the Potomac one way or another until he did. So he ordered Pleasanton to reconnoiter to the west, and find out what Lee was up to. Pleasanton decided to fufill Hooker's orders, with an operation of his own - an attack on Stuart.

The plan was ambitious, perhaps too ambitious,  a pincer attack from two directions, with Stuart between the pincers. Yet it started well enough, at least from one side.

The Union cavalry caught the Confederates unaware, driving in their pickets, and then driving Stuart and his headquarters staff from Stuart's headquarters near Fleetwood Hill. But the second pincer moved too slowly, and got bogged down with a now alert Rebel cavalry. A fortuitous Confederate artillery piece caused a Union attack to falter, and rallying his men, Stuart counterattacked.

The battle, or rather battles, raged all afternoon, with sabers, charges, and countercharges. By the end of the day, Stuart held the position on Fleetwood hill, while the Union cavalry made an orderly withdrawal. Stuart may, or may not have been supported by Confederate infantry at the tail end of the battle. Pleasanton may, or may not have observed Rebel infantry marching north. Nevertheless, Brandy Station had cataclysmic results. First, Stuart's ascendancy over the union cavalry was over. For the first time, they had given as good as they got. They had withdrawn at their leisure, after fighting Stuart to a standstill all afternoon. And within a month, they would soundly defeat him at Runnel's Farm east of Gettysburg. Second, Stuart, the golden boy of the Southern press, came under withering criticism for the battle, for being unaware an enemy cavalry Corps was in his vicinity, for wasting his time on reviews, and for narrowly averting a catastrophic defeat that could have thrown Lee's plans into disarray.

And smarting from that criticism, Stuart took it upon himself, to loosely interpret lee's already loosely  structured orders to guard Lee's flank, and attempt a third ride around the Union Army, with a result that Lee went north blind as to the location of the Army of the Potomac until he blundered into it at Gettysburg. and Stuart missed the first two days of the battle, arriving only on the afternoon of July 2d, having been attacked, harried and obstructed by the newly rejuvenated cavalry of the Army of the Potomac. And while Brandy Station did nothing for Stuart's reputation, it led to the promotion of three Union cavalry captains to the rank of Brigadier General: Elon Farnsworth [killed July 3d], Wesley Merritt, and George Armstrong Custer. Custer would whip Stuart at Runnel's Farm, and within less than a year, one of his men would kill Stuart at Yellow Tavern. Custer would go on to be the youngest MG in the U.S. Army. Merritt would go to senior command at the end of the 19th century. and it all hinged on the largest cavalry battle ever fought in north America - Brandy Station.

It opens and closes the epic "World at War" series. Aerial shots of the ruined village, with Lawrence Olivier's voiceover, tell briefly of the afternoon of June 10th, 1944, when death came calling to a village in southern France, near Tulle.

In the Spring of 1944, the 2d SS Panzer division, "DAS REICH" was deployed in southern France, in the Central Massif, hunting guerillas, and rebuilding for future operations, when it received orders on 6 June, to deploy to Normandy to fight the allied invasion. the French Resistance decided to impede the Division's northward march. The SS did not take kindly to the interference.

DAS REICH became bogged down, fighting ambushes, roadblocks, and rescuing the German garrison in Tulle. The march north slowed appreciably [It would slow to a crawl when it met Allied airpower further north. And then the underground seized an SS officer, either a company, or battalion commander from DAS REICH. He was never seen again. And apparently unaware that other elements of the Division were hanging 99 Frenchmen in Tulle [including the divisional commander, Hans Lammerding], the commander of another battalion marched to the town of Ouradur sur Glane with blood on their minds.

They surrounded the town, allowing people to enter, but not leave. They then put all the women and children in the Church, and took all the men and teen aged boys to various sites [usually] barns] where they machine gunned them, then set their bodies on fire. the church was dynamited, and anyone trying to escape was gunned down. then the town was largely razed. when they left that afternoon, the men of DAS REICH had killed over 600 people, and destroyed their town.

Reaction from the German High command was fast and furious. Rommel, and the General Commanding the area of the massacre demanded a court martial. The regimental commander of the DER FUEHRER opened an investigation and prepared charges. But the officer who commanded the massacre was killed in Normandy, along with many of the perpetrators, and the matter dropped.

During a war crimes trial in 1951, around twenty of the former SS men on trial were revealed to be Alsatians, and all but one claimed they were forced into both the Waffen SS and the massacre. The French Legislature pardoned them.

As for Ouradur sur Glane, Charles DeGaulle ordered that it not be rebuilt, but kept as a war memorial. A new Ouradur was built to the original's northwest, as was a museum. The ruins of Ouradur stand to this day.

Born in Iowa as Marion Morrison, he becomes one of the biggest movie stars of all time as John Wayne [The nickname 'Duke' goes back to his childhood, when his Airdale was known as 'Big duke', and he was known as 'Little duke'].

Wayne and his family moved to California when he was a child. A high school football star, he went to college on a scholarship, which he lost due to a leg injury. From there he graduated to moving props at a movie studio [with fellow classmates Ward Bond and Bob Steele], and eventually to acting, where Raoul Walsh named him John Wayne for his first starring role. The movie bombed.

Wayne labored through the '30s making two reelers, mostly westerns, but he did learn his craft. Wayne's breakout success came in 1959, in john ford's "STAGECOACH". And from there, Wayne went on to work with ford on some of the latter's most famous efforts, including the so-called Cavalry Trilogy [FORT APACHE, RIO GRANDE, AND SHE WORE A YELLOW RIBBON], THE MAN WHO SHOT LIBERTY VALANCE and THE QUIET MAN. Wayne also formed his own production company, starring in HONDO, THE ALAMO, McLINTOCK and THE GREEN BERETS. In his last film, THE SHOOTIST, Wayne portrayed an aging gunfighter, dying of cancer [art imitating life]. He won an Oscar for his portrayal of Rooster Cogburn in TRUE GRIT.

Wayne was offered, in the '50s, the leading role in a new TV western, GUNSMOKE. He turned it down, recommending James Arness for the role of Matt Dillon instead.

John Wayne became a cultural icon during his lifetime. He is still missed today. At least by me.

JEB Stuart is in the ground. Wade Hampton is now in command of the cavalry of the Army of Northern Virginia [and unlike Stuart, he will reach the rank of LTG]. And Phil Sheridan has decided to raid the RR depot at Trevilian Station, and do massive damage to Confederate logistics and railroad infrastructure.

Hampton learns of the Union cavalry movement early, but not early enough to stop the Union troopers from reaching Trevilian Station first. And leading the Union 3d Cavalry Division is one of Sheridan's favorite generals, George Armstrong Custer.

Custer sets about his mission quickly, destroying some 5 miles of track, burning some buildings and supplies. But Rebel cavalry not only appears to his front, but also behind him, and Custer, who has gotten far ahead of the rest of Sheridan's force [sound familiar?] finds himself surrounded.

Forming his men into a triangular formation, Custer fights off repeated enemy  attacks, until Sheridan appears, at which point Custer leads a breakout charge, and rejoins Sheridan, who withdraws. Union losses are some 25% lower than the Confederates, and neither side loses more than 750 casualties. However, Hampton's quick response, severely limits the damage the blue horsemen inflict, and Trevilian Station is running at full capacity within weeks. And, just perhaps, George Armstrong Custer got a hazy glimpse of his future.

He succeeded to the throne of Macedonia when his father, Philip II was assassinated by one of his bodyguards. Her was barely out of his teens when he did so. He inherited not only the kingdom, but the best, most innovative army in Europe, as well as leadership of the Delian League, a league of Greek city states led by Macedonia, as a result of conquest. He had served as commander of his father's heavy cavalry during the war with Greece, had been tutored by Aristotle as a youth, and destroyed the Persian Empire. He has come down to us in history as Alexander the Great.

Alexander put into motion the invasion of Persia envisaged, and begun by his father [Philip had already deployed some 10,000 troops to Asia Minor]. Leading a confederation of Greek City State armies, with a core of Macedonian pikemen and cavalry, Alexander crossed the Hellespont and began a drive into the western Achmaed Empire, turning to the coast and the ports thereon after an initial victory at Arbela, taking Tyre, and Egypt, where he commissioned the city of Alexandria.

He then turned inland, defeated a huge Persian Army at Gualgama, and sacked and burned the Persian capitol, in response to Xerxes' sack of Athens some 70 years before. The Persian king, Darius, having been slain by his own men, Alexander joined Persia to his own Empire, which moved continually to the East, eventually winding up in India.

It was at this point that Alexander's army mutinied, and forced him to turn back west. It was after marching back to Babylon that Alexander sickened [poisoned?] and died.

Alexander's Empire did not long survive his passing. his generals carved it up, since Alexander had made no clear  order of succession. Alexander's body itself wound up in Egypt, captured by one of his generals, Ptolemy, who founded a dynasty that existed until the death of Cleopatra. Asia minor fell to Seleucus, another general. Only Macedonia remained 'in the family', ruled by the regent Alexander left in charge, and eventually, Alexander's family.

So what di Alexander give us? Supposedly, he Hellenized the East. But if he did so, it didn't stick. The army he wielded was not his creation, but his father's. The tactics and strategy he brought to a high order were also created by his father, the unsung genius of the dynasty. And except for Ptolemaic Egypt, most of the successor states carved out of Alexander's Empire would be gone within a century, conquered by the Parthians and the Romans.

Because aside from declaring Carthage an enemy [and doing nothing about it], Alexander largely ignored the West. Especially an up and coming town on the Tiber. And in its time, Rome would take on the Macedonian phalanx, created by Phillip, and still in use, and destroy it at Cynochepalus [one of Alexander's successors had allied with Hannibal and Carthage - to his, and Macedonia's detriment]. And by the time of Augustus Caesar, Rome would rule all of Alexander's possession on the Mediteranean littoral. But Alexander did leave us a lovely legend.

Germany launches its "Vengeance Weapon 1", a pilotless jet propelled rocket, against the city of London. The V1, also known as "the doodlebug" and "the buzzbomb" is a ramp launched weapon. Deployment was delayed by teething troubles, that resulted in a customized, PILOTED V1 being flight tested by Hannah Reisch, one of Germany's most famous women pilots. Reisch's test flights reveal problems with the gyroscope, which are quickly fixed.

The V1, the world's first cruise missile, has some initial success, but proves fairly easy for the RAF to defeat. The V1's slow speed makes it easy meat for AAA guns, and RAF pilots learn to tip them in flight by flipping them with their wings. And after Overlord, Allied ground and air forces make  greater efforts to destroy their launch ramps.

The V1 is soon joined by the world's first ballistic missile, the V2, which is a whole 'nother kettle of fish. Capable of launching from a tractor-trailer set up, the V2 is invulnerable to existing defensive technologies. It will be fired on London, and Antwerp, but not, surprisingly, on the allied embarkation ports for D-Day.

The V1 and V2 join Germany's other technologies that the Germans invent, or perfect first, and are still in use [much refined] today. They include: the jet fighter plane, the jet bomber, the assault rifle, the wire guided missile, the cruise missile, the ballistic missile, the multi-purpose rapid fire machine gun, the first double action semi-automatic military pistol, the coal scuttle helmet, the basic design requirements for the modern main battle tank [the Panther and Tiger tanks].

Wow....more history I knew nothing about. Thank you  PzLdr!

http://www.oradour.info/

http://www.oradour.info/ruined/ruined.htm

was curious...found these. Thank you for posting.

I miss him too. I remember my stepfather used to watch his old movies. Black and white movies in the early mornings when he couldn't sleep. Hellfighters one of my fav John Wayne movies. Heck most of them are my favs!

Once Johnny Carson had a trash truck driver on. He used to be the trash pickup for John Wayne. He said he found a script and on it it asked the time for Wayne to show up on the set. The trash truck driver said the time was at your convenience Mr Wayne.

1775: The Battle of Bunker Hill [actually Breed's Hill]:

After their catastrophic hammering on the road back from Lexington and concord, the British regroup at Boston, and the Patriot militias converge on the city, cutting it off by land, and moving forward to occupy [and fortify] a position on bunker hill. however, they occupy the wrong hill. Breed's Hill, smaller, and forward of bunker hill is where they wind up. They hastily dig entrenchments [to the admiration and amazement of the British generals], and prepare for battle.

The British have almost all the generals at Boston that will conduct the Revolutionary War from the British side. there's Thomas Gage, Henry Clinton, William Howe, and Johnny Burgoyne. Howe will lead the attack they decide upon.

The British launch an amphibious attack, landing to the southeast of the Rebels, forming up, and advancing on the fortifications. To their shock and chagrin, they meet a hail of fire ["Don't fire 'til you see the whites of their eyes"] that not only stops them cold, and drives them back, but takes out an inordinate amount of officers [an American practice that will bedevil the British for the entire war].

The Redcoats re-form   and advance again, with the same result. The Patriots, however, are, by now increasingly low on ammunition, and have made futile efforts at re-supply. The British now storm the colonists' redoubts at the point of the bayonet, the British weapon that will terrorize the Americans for much of the war. Those colonists not killed flee. among the dead is Dr. Joseph Warren, one of Massachusetts' leading rebels. But British losses are much heavier, and the British soon abandon their plans to break the land blockade. Within a short time, the American Army will have a commander, George Washington. Shortly after that, the Americans will do another overnight fortification job, this time on the Dorchester Heights, where they will emplace captured artillery from Fort Ticonderoga, brought cross country by Henry Knox. Since the guns command Boston Harbor, and since the lad approach to Boston is still in Rebel hands, the British are forced to abandon, and evacuate Boston. The war is well and truly on.

1876: THE BATTLE OF THE ROSEBUD

It occurred eight days before the Battle of the Little Bighorn, and that debacle did much to distract both the citizenry and the Army from George Crook's worst moment, the Battle of the Rosebud.

In the Spring of 1876, the U.S. Army was ordered to bring in all the non-reservation Lakota and Cheyenne still on the Northern Plains. The plan called for three converging columns, commanded by Alfred Terry [from the East], John Gibbon [from the West], and George Crokk [from the South]. There were several problems with the plan. First, they didn't know where, in the exceedingly large area of operations, the Indians were. Second, communication between the columns would be problematic, relying on couriers largely "flying blind". and third, there was a dearth of fighting experience against Indians in the command structure. Gibbons had little, Terry had none. the only two officers on the expedition with any significant experience fighting Indians were George Armstrong Custer [a subordinate of Terry, and George Crook.

George Crook probably had more experience fighting Indians than most of the Army officer corps combined. He had fought Indians in the northwest. He had made his bones fighting the Apache and Yavapi in the southwest [the Apache called him "Nantan Lupan"-the Grey Fox]. So he seemed the ideal commander for the expedition. turns out he wasn't.

On 17 JUNE, Crook was marching north when he halted the column for rest and consolidation. His men unsaddled their horse and made breakfast, sdespite warnings from Shoshone and Crow scouts that a large number of Sioux and Cheyenne were nearby. Crook either disbelieved the reports, or believed the Indians would not attack. In either case, he was wrong.

Soon, Crow and Shoshone scouts rode in from the north, yelling that the Sioux were coming. And they were, over a thousand Sioux and Cheyenne, under the command of Crazy Horse. They caught Crook and his men flatfooted. And to make it worse, Crazy Horse had imposed some lind of discipline on his horsemen. they didn't fight in massed formations, like the Army, but neither did they attack in a disorganized mass.

Crazy Horse seemed to have an absolute victory in his hands. Except for the scouts. the Shoshone and Crow had set up in defense forward of the U.S troopers picnic breakfast. They blunted the Sioux-Cheyenne attack, and then countercharged, buying enough time for the soldiers to react and organize a defense.

the battle raged for several hours before the Indians withdrew. Crook had suffered fairly serious losses. But it was what he did next that was inexplicable. Retreating back to his supply point, Crook failed to notify ANYBODY of his defeat, or the size and location of the Indians he had fought. In fact, in the immediate aftermath of the battle, he told no one anything. So, neither Gibbon nor Terry was aware that there was no longer a southern column working its way north. And Custer was unaware that Crook had been engaged by a force of Indians at least twice the size of the whole Seventh Cavalry [ it was actually much larger than even that], nor where they were.

Crook eventually returned to fighting the Apache in Arizona and New Mexico, but fell afoul of Phil Sheridan, botched the capture of Geronimo [he did most of the work, Nelson Miles would get the credit], and was relieved at his own request. Bu his nadir occurred on the Northern Plains, at the Rosebud.

1864:

Off the French port of Cherbourg, the U.S.S KEARSARGE engages the notorious Confederate raider C.S.S ALABANMA in a battle that results in the sinking of the Confederate ship. ALABAMA, one of the Confederacy's best known warships [along with the raiders FLORIDA and SHENANDOAH], had been built in Great Britain [Liverpool], and armed off the coast of Ireland. commanded by Captain Raphael Semmes, she had gone on to terrorize Union merchant shipping to the point where a severe disruption of merchant shipping was likely.

ALABAMA had been in Cherbourg for repairs and re-supply after months at sea. KEARSARGE, having caught Semmes with his pants down, as it were, waited for ALABAMA to emerge and join combat. Semmes took up the challenge. KEARSARGE was able to triumph, according to Semmes, because she hung chains down the side of her hull to deflect, or minimize the effect of ALABAMA's shot. Semmes escaped capture when he was rescued from the water by a British yacht that had arrived to watch the battle. At the end of the war, he commanded, as an Admiral, naval infantry in the retreat from Richmond.

Great Britain, on the other hand, was forced to pay a VERY large claim against it by the United States, for the damage caused by the Confederate raiders, all of which had been built by the British. The British government had also, under U.S. pressure, during the war finally stopped the building of warships for the Confederacy, when the halted the construction of two "Rams" for Jefferson Davis.


1944:

Its official name is the Battle of the Philippines Sea, but it has come down to us by the more commonly known sobriquet of "The Great Marianas Turkey Shoot", because it spelled the effective end of Japanese Naval air power in the Pacific.

By 1944, the Japanese were still searching for the 'decisive battle' they held so dear. Coupled with the necessity to defend the Marianas, the "outer ring" of their defensive perimeter, they decided to combine their carrier air power with island based aircraft to fight the Americans. the Americans, with a staggering preponderance in men, material and experience were more thasn ready to engage. but the American commander, Raymond Spruance fought a defenasive air battle, in the sense that, using his radar and picket ships, he let the Japanese come to him. And they did. In waves. and the Americans shot them down. in waves.

By the time the battle was over, the Japanese had lost close to 500 aircraft, over 300 from their carriers. to add insult to injury, two of their fleet carriers, the brand new TAIHO, and SHOKAKU of Pearl Harbor and Coral Sea fame, were sunk. By U.S. submarines.

And while Spruance received some criticism [undeserved] for a perceived lack of aggressiveness, Japan's naval air power back was broken. When the Japanese made their last effort of the war, the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the action was carried out by what remained of their surface fleet. What carriers Japan still possessed were used as a sacrificial bait to draw Halsey awat from the battle area.

On this date, in 1953, after a lifelong commitment to communism, at least a decade of spying for the Soviet Union, and acting as a transit station for nuclear secrets from the Manhattan Project, which allowed the U.S.S.R to build an atomic bomb some four to five years ahead of schedule, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are executed in the electric chair at Sing Sing.

The Rosenbergs, who had been involved in two spy rings Julius, codenamed 'Liberal' and 'Engineer' by his NKVD handlers, had been engaged in industrial espionage while working for the U.S. Army Signal Corps from the mid 130s on. When his brother-in-law, David Greenglass, was stationed at Los Alamos, in the machine shop, Ethel importuned him to help the cause, and had him furnish diagrams and designs of items he was fabricating, which the Rosenbergs forwarded to the Soviets.

The Rosenbergs, along with such luminaries as Donald Maclean [of the Cambridge Five], were exposed by the Venona transcripts, which were not used at their trial. And although promised mercy if the 'rolled' on their comrades and handlers, Julius and Ethel preferred death for the 'cause'. They got their wish. 

He had come up in the world of crime partnered with Meyer Lansky. Lansky was the brains, Siegel was the muscle. He wasn't stupid, but he wasn't Lansky. Still, the "Bug and Meyer" gang was a success in Prohibition, and became even more successful as a result of reuniting with a friend from their teen years on the lower East Side, Charles "Lucky" Luciano.

Luciano, a Sicilian who believed in making money with anyone, Sicilian or not, and Lansky were incredibly tight. And Benjamin Siegel was right there with them. Siegel, who preferred "Benny" to "Bugsy" [a sobriquet that meant 'Crazy'] was a handy addition to Luciano's ability to strike at his enemies within Italian organized crime, since he wasn't known to them. Siegel was, most likely, one of the men who murdered Salvatore Marranzano, giving Luciano control of the Italian mob. He may have ben in on the killing of Joe "The Boss" Masseria before that. Whether he was or not, Siegel had a well deserved reputation as a stone cold killer.

But as crime got organized, and flourished, Siegel rose through the ranks of 'management' due to his close association with Lansky and Luciano, to the point where the Commission sent him to take over, and run, the criminal operations on the West Coast. It was while traveling to his new assignment that Siegel discovered Las Vegas, home of legalized gambling [Lansky's true love], and propsed that the mob, working through straw men, build a casino to both pull in, and launder, cash.

It was a great idea, but it was the beginning of the end for Siegel. Siegel, neither an architect, nor engineer, kept tearing down and rebuilding the "Flamingo", to the point where the cost overruns were in the millions. On top of that, there was strong evidence that Siegel and his girl friend, Virginia Hill, were skimming from the funds, and later, the take. then there was the West Coast Racing wire service. The mob stood to make a great deal of money on west coast horserace bets, if they knew who won what in real time, via the wire. Siegel refused to share. Bad mistake.

Normally, the killing of a mobster of Bugsy Siegel's stature was a major event. And it required the highest authority to authorize it. So, after his deportation to Italy, Charlie Luciano showed up in Cuba, to check on his casino investments with Lansky, and to chair a commission meet on Siegel [It was during this Cuban interlude that Frank Sinatra showed up with a suitcase with 300 large for Lucky from the States]. Whether he sought to save his longtime friend, or how much Lansky may have argued on his behalf is unknown. What is known is that with Luciano leading, the vote was to kill Bugsy Siegel.

The hit occurred at Virginia Hill's house in Beverly Hills. Siegel was shot through a window with a rifle while speaking to an associate [Miss hill was not at home]. The crime was never solved.

Siegel has lived on through crime movies and TV documentaries. And the very day he died, Lucky Luciano's men took over the flamingo.

He was coming off a series of incredible victories, capping over a year of combat in the Libyan desert. Newly promoted Field Marshal Erwin Rommel had begun the year where he had begun the year before, at El Agheila. After driving the British out of Italian Libya in the Spring of 1941 [save for the fortress port of Tobruk], Rommel had spent the rest of that year trying, unsuccessfully, to take Tobruk, and staving off, successfully, until November, British efforts to drive him back.

Operation Crusader did just that, and by January Rommel was at his own start line. But then, just as in 1941, things gave signs of going his way. As in 1941, Churchill ordered his front line troops stripped units, sending them this time to Singapore instead of Greece. the troops he left were 'green', and in need of a refit. Plus Rommel had gotten his first new tanks and fuel in months.

So, in February, Rommel bounced the British again, retaking Benghazi and driving to the British defense line at Gazala, west of Tobruk. Gazala was a series of brigade 'boxes' [fortifications], with barbed wire strung between them. Each box contained infantry, and was supported by artillery. But the British still hadn't figured out armor [they never would], and the tanks were held in brigade size reserves, scattered behind the lines. Additional problems were presented by the fact that the left end of the line was 'up in the air', anchored on nothing, and that some of the 'boxes' were positioned where they couldn't provide mutually supporting fire. Still, with over 800 tanks, including the American made 'Grant [75mm Sponson gun, and 47 mm turret gun], the British commander, Neil Ritchie, thought he was in good shape. He was wrong.

By the time Gazala was over, Rommel had destroyed most of the 800 tanks, unhinged the Gazala Line, put the 8th Army to flight, and captured Tobruk in a day. He then pursued the British into Egypt, where in a battle one by bluff and guile, he again stampeded them east, this time from Mersa Matruh. And then his luck ran out. The CG, Claude Auchinleck relieved Ritchie, took personal command of 8t6h Army, and stopped the British retreat at the railroad stop of El Alamein. His right flank rested on the Mediterranean, his left on a massive quicksand bog called the Quattara Depression. For the first time in the desert war, Rommel was to face a position he couldn't flank. And he did it with men and machines worn down by fighting, fuel and trucks from Tobruk, and facing terrain features [Rusewait Ridge, for one], that were fortified, and astride any potential flanking move from Rommel's right. And the British had air superiority over not only the battlefield, but also over Rommel's supply lines as well.

The result, while not a forgone conclusion, was  predictable. The Germans were beaten back. Rommel was sent on sick leave, while both sides fortified their fronts.

But Auchinleck fared little better. He was relieved of his command by Winston Churchill, with the acquiesense of the CIGS, Alan Brooke [Being an Indian Army man didn't help]. And using his plans, but not giving Auchinleck any credit, the new CG of 8th Army, Bernard Law Montgomery went on  to defeat Rommel's subsequent attacks on El Alamein, and then counterattacked, driving the Germans back across Libya for the last time. 

By the middle of June, 1940, the British were fairly well convinced that the French were gearing up to surrender to the Germans. German panzer columns were ripping their way southward to the Spanish border, and to the rear of the Maginot Line. And one concern of the  British arising from this potential [soon to be actual] surrender was the disposition of the French Fleet.

A combination of old and modern battleships, cruisers, etc., the tonnage of the French Navy was approximately 40% of the the Royal Navy. In sum, France had the second largest Navy in Europe.

And so, Operation Catapult was born. Its purpose was to neutralize the French Fleet, despite assurances from its commander, Admiral Darlan, that it would never fall into German hands. And so, the British offered three basic options [when they offered options at all] to the French: Join the Royal Navy's fight against the Germans [in violation of the armistice with the Germans, sail the ships to Britain, where they would be interned, sail them to the Caribbean where they would be disarmed and turned over to the Americans for the duration. There was also the fourth option of scuttling.

Catapult started in early July. Parts of the plan went more easily than others. French ships in British home harbors were boarded by armed British parties, and seized. Loss of life was minimal [two British and one Frenchman died on the submarine [biggest in the world] SURCOUF. French naval units in Alexandria agreed to internment after negotiation.

But Catapult is synonymous with the battle of Mers al Kabir in Algeria, and to a lesser degree with Dakar. And there, nothing went right.

The British presented their demands. Wile negotiations were still ongoing, ARK ROYAL launched an air attack that was beaten back with the loss of two British airmen [the only losses the British suffered]. Ad then the HOOD and two British battleships opened fire. The older battleship BRETAGNE was sunk. the newer battleships PROVENCE and DUNKERQUE [somewhat ironic] were damaged and run aground. STRASBOURG and four destroyers escaped to Toulon. At Dakar, HMS HERMES launched an air attack on RICHELIEU on July 8th, seriously damaging her. there were intermittent air strikes from 3 JUL onward].

The French lost over 1,000 dead. They undertook retaliatory air strikes against Gibralter with little effect. The British accomplished their objective. And for a substantial period of time, they turned an ally into an enemy. And for a longer period of time, even into future generations, Catapult poisoned British- French relations.

And from this point forward, the French could not be trusted.

Of particular note, the first troops the USA engaged in the European Theater were French, not German.  Somehow, this bit of history is often lost.  The French are the last people I would ever trust!

One could make the argument the British couldn't be trusted, either. Darlan assured them the French fleet would never be allowed to fall into German hands. When Hitler invaded Vichy in the aftermath of TORCH, the French scuttled their fleet at Toulon. Aside from the Gibralter air raids, the French took no further actions against the British. Meanwhile, the British sent armed parties, with no negotiation, aboard French ships in British home ports to seize them,  and engaged in perfunctory negotiations [except for Cunningham at Alexandria] at Mers el Kabir - with a French fleet trapped in port, and refusing to believe their erstwhile former ally would fire on them

And remember, the Brits had not included the French in their little plan to exit the combat in Northern France at Dunkirk [where a French rear guard allowed the Brits and a large number of French to evacuate [they did send further, reinforcements to France for the battle of France [Rommel bagged the 51st Highlanders at St. Valery].

And remember, when we landed in North Africa, [1] We were allied with the British, whom the French had no reason to love, [2] We were not at war with France. It was THEIR territory we invaded, and [3] We could have landed in  Libya, which would have put us right behind Rommel, who was retreating.

I have no great love for the French, but the phrase "Perfidious Albion" exists for a reason.

In a macabre happenstance, two of the major movers behind the Declaration of Independence [one of whom was its author, and both of whom were former Presidents] die.

John Adams, second President of the United States, and Thomas Jefferson, his successor, had become bitter enemies during Adams' administration [relations had soured during Washington's second term]. Adams had even left the Capitol before Jefferson's swearing in, and neither man spoke or communicated with each other for years.

But a reconciliation arose when Jefferson wrote Adams after the death of one of his children, and a lively correspondence developed between the former rivals. And 50 years to the day after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, both men, within hours of each other, died; a great loss to America, and the world.

They had originated as one of the largest bands of the Apache. They had migrated south with the rest of the Apache into Texas, but had eventually gone their own way, sundering the tribal bond, and becoming an Indian tribe in their own right. They became enemies of their cousins, although, initially, they behaved the same, and although they called themselves Dineh ["The People"], they became known as the Navajo.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Navajo allied, at times with the Spanish, and even the Comanche, to attack their erstwhile cousins. As a result, the Apache were largely driven west, into New Mexico and Arizona [exceptions were the Jicarilla, the Lipan, the Kiowa-Apache and, to a degree, the Mescalero]. The Navajo themselves controlled a large area in the areas known as "The Four Corners", centered on a natural fortress known as the Canyon de Chelly [de Shay], and they began to engage in large scale animal husbandry [sheep], farming [fruit trees, etc.], weaving, and silversmithing.

But lest anyone think they weren't related to the Apache, the Navajo acquired many of their sheep raiding the settlers, both Spanish and Anglo for their livestock, horses, etc. And at the start of the American Civil War, things, from the Navajo perspective, were looking exceptionally good. The U.S Army had pulled out of their home range, Cochise's Apaches were raising hell in Arizona and New Mexico, and the field appeared clear for some livestock acquisition. So the Navajo began to raid, in force, and over New Mexico the settlement's ranches and farms. It was their undoing.

During the year 1862, the United States Army was forced to pay attention to the southwest. Aside from the apaches and Navajo, the Confederates sent a force from Texas to occupy both New Mexico and Arizona. Cochise largely took care of the Rebels in Arizona, but a relief column under MG Carleton was dispatched from California to reclaim the U.S. territories. The Rebels having been driven off at Glorietta Pass, Carleton turned his gaze on his Indian problem. His gaze fell on the Navajo.

Carleton had an excellent weapon at hand to deal with them, Christopher 'Kit' Carson. A LTC in the New Mexico Volunteers, he was uniquely qualified to deal with the Navajo. A legendary Mountain Man, he had guided Fremont during his explorations. He had run a trading post among various tribes. He had been an Indian agent. And he had fought Indians in the past. So on this day, in 1863, Carson took the field against the Navajo.

Carleton had decided to concentrate the Navajo on a reservation at Bosque Redondo, well outside of the Navajo homeland, and the sight of their sacred mountain. They refused to go. It was Carson's job to make them change their minds. And although he despised what he was doing, he did.

The key was Canyon de Chelly. Knowing the Navajo felt they could raid with impunity, then vanish into their fortress canyon to ride out the retribution, Carson decided to take that sense of security away from them.

When the Army entered the Canyon, the Navajo literall climbed up on the sandstone spires with food and water, expecting the Army to leave. It didn't. Instead, Carson cut down their orchards, burning the trees. He slaughtered their livestock, burned their hogans, and, if  the Navajo fired on his men from their lofty perches, he answered with a few rounds of artillery. If the Navajo chose to fight on the canyon floor, he fought and beat them.

The result was foreordained. Any sense of security the Navajo had was destroyed in the Canyon de Chelly. Hungry, hounded, with no relief in sight, they surrendered under Chief Bonito. They were then marched, under horrendous conditions to Bosque Redondo where they were dumped, until 1864 when, in return for  their agreement never to engage in war or raiding again, they were given a reservation in their homeland, in sight of their sacred mountain.

Carson's campaign did not sit well with him, and aside from advocating for the Navajo, he got out of the Army as soon as he could.

And the Navajo? They became one of the few success stories of the Reservation system. Their reservation has actually expaqnded over the years, fueled by land purchases made by the tribe. Their culture is vibrant, and still exists. Navajo folk art, jewelry, rugs and blankets command premium prices. And the Navajo, who once fought the United States, have served proudly in U.S. military, contributing significantly to victory in WW II with their "Code Talkers". 

1099: The First Crusade: Jerusalem falls to the Crusaders.

After some 400 years of Muslim aggression that has seen a Christian presence overwhelmed in Asia Minor, the Mediterranean littoral, Iberia, the Middle East, the Holy Land and other Christian lands, Europe finally responds after a plea for help from the Byzantine Emperor, and a call to arms by Pope Urban the II.

Jerusalem had passed from the control of the Muslim Egyptians to the more fanatical Seljuk Turks, with the oppression of Christian citizens increasing accordingly. That, coupled with  Turkish military pressure on Byzantium, led the Pope to call a Crusade.

The first Crusade was actually two Crusades. the first off the mark was composed of children, and then peasants. More a mob than anything else, it made its way to Islamic territory where the 'crusaders' were slaughtered by the Turks. the second expedition was a horse of another color. Lured by promises of remission of all sins, a chance for glory, wealth, and lands in the East, many second sons, knights and even Lords organized themselves into an army and headed for the Holy Land by an overland route. Led by Godfrey of Buillon, Raymond of Tolouse and Bohemond, some 4,000 heavy cavalry, and 25,000 infantry descended on the Islamic outlands in 1098.. After taking Nicea, winning the battle of Doryleum, and taking Antioch by siege, the remnants of the Crusaders [some 1,200 horse and 12,000 infantry] descended on Jerusalem in 1099. On July 14th, they took it by storm, and following the practice they had taken at Nicea and Antioch, they proceeded to massacre every Muslim and Jew they found in the city.

The Seljuks, caught on the back foot, made several ineffectual efforts to rout the Crusaders. All failed. And the Turks' defeats gave the Christians time to set up independent kingdoms across the Holy Land, with Bohemond crowned King of Jerusalem.

1789:  BIRTH OF THE FIRST FRENCH REPUBLIC- THE STORMING OF THE BASTILLE:

After misgovernment on a massive scale since the reign of his father, Louis XVI, aka, "Louis the Locksmith", brings France to the brink of revolution with even greater mismanagement. With a treasury emptied by the American Revolution and France's war with England,  his dismissal of the Estates General when they refused to raise taxes without reforms, the economic shambles France found itself in, and his own ineptitude, Louis prsided over a barrel of gunpowder awaiting a spark. that spark was the storming of the royal prison, the Bastille, by a mob of Frenchmen on July 14th, 1789, intent on freeing the prisoners, many of them political, bering held by the Royalists. The storming of the Bastille led to more rioting, a rising, and eventually the overthrow of the dynasty. Louis and his wife, caught trying to flee Paris, were subsequently guillotined. And the Republic that was proclaimed led to the Directorate of Robespierre and Danton, more bloodshed in the terror and eventually Emperor Napoleon I. Gotta loved the French...

DEATH IN THE OLD WEST:

1881 - Henry McCarty, a fine New York City boy [Hell's Kitchen], a/k/a Henry Antrim a/k/a William Bonney a/k/a "The Kid", who has come down to us as "Billy the Kid", is shot to death by Sheriff Pat Garrett at Pete Maxwell's ranch house.

The Kid, who had been pursued for some three months after his escape from the Lincoln County Jail which resulted in his murder of two deputies was shot by Garrett when he entered the house in his stocking feet, and carrying a butcher knife, but no guns. His last words were reputedly "Quien Es?" The answer was Garrett.

1882 - Jonny Ringo is found in a canyon near Tombstone with a bullet wound in his head. Ringo, a gunman of such speed and notoriety that Doc Holliday refused to fight him, had drifted to Arizona when things became too hot for him in Texas. His death was ruled suicide by the coroner, although there were several suspects in his demise, including "Buckskin" Frank Leslie. to add to the confusion, Wyatt Earp later claimed he killed Ringo.

1918: THE DEATH OF TR'S YOUNGEST SON:

Quentin Roosevelt, youngest son of former President Theodore Roosevelt, is killed when his fighter plane is shot down by the Germans. They give him a full military funeral when they find out who he is. Quentin was the last of TR's sons to reach the front, but the first [and only one in WW I] to die. His death deeply affected his father. His older brother Ted will finish the war as a Colonel. In WW II as a brigadier general he will be assistant division commander of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily, where, along with divisional commander Terry De La Mesa Allen, he will be relieved of command by Omar Bradley. As Assistant Divisional commander of the 4th Infantry Division, Ted Roosevelt will be the only U.S. general to land on a beach [Utah] on D-Day. Up for divisional command, Roosevelt has a heart attack and dies outside of Cherbourg. He was subsequently awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions on D-Day, making he abnd father [San Juan Hill] one of only two sets of father-son CMOH awardees [the other is Arthur and Douglas MacArthur].

Wow.....Thank you PzLdr!

Thank you both for another fine history lesson!!

France gets turned upside down and inside out about ten years from now when it will have a majority islamic population.  How long before they demand the country be renamed the Islamic State of France?  In my lifetime, I see France being destroyed along the same vein as Syria.  Historic sites will become ruble. 

The family had ruled Russia for over 300 years. Yet by 1918, the Czar, Nicholas II, had been forced to abdicate, a provisional government had been overthrown by a Bolshevik coup, Russia had made peace with Imperial Germany, the Czar, his Czarina, Alexandra, and their five children, the Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia and the Czarevitch, were prisoners, and a Civilo War between the Reds and the Whitesw was ragfing the length and breadth of Russia.

Russia had entered World War I with high hopes, but a badly divided society. The Revolution of 1905 had forced reforms on the autocratic Czar, including a parliament he dissolved with monotonous regularity rather than engage in representative government. And aside from the Brusilev Offensive of 1916, the Germans had beaten the imperial Army like a drum. War weariness, food shortages, and left wing propaganda had resulted in the Czar's forced abdication, and the formation of the Karensky government. But Karensky supported continuing the war, which most Russians opposed. So he was toppled in the October Revolution engineered by Lenin's Bolsheviks.

And the Czar and his family? They became prisoners, after the King of England, his cousin, refused to accept  the Romanovs as refugees.

At first the family was exiled to Siberia. But then, as the Civil War raged and the Whites advanced, they were moved to Yekatrienburg, in the foothills of the Urals, where they were placed in a stockade house, under Bolshevik guard. And there they stayed, until the local Soviet received a telegram from Moscow signed "V. Lenin". The Whites were driving on Moscow, and advancing westward through the Urals. Rather than have them liberated, Lenin suggested they be dealt with.

The result was that in the early morning hours of July 17th, the family, their retainers, servants and bodyguards were ordered to assemble in the basement of the house, ostensibly to take a photo to show they were alive. Some seats were provided for them.

But instead of a photographer, a squad of Bolshevik him men, led by one Ulasky, came through the door, and opened fire. The Czar, his son and several others went down in the fusillade. But the Czarina and the girls were a tougher proposition. They had, at some point,  sewed jewelry into  their dre4ssesd, which acted as a sort of flak vest. So they were bayoneted, stabbed and clubbed to death.

They bodies were then removed to a mineshaft, set afire and dumped. They were subsequently removed from the mineshaft and reburied [except for the Czarevitch and his sister Maria who were, for some reason buried separately in another location. When the Whites arrived in Yekratrienburg, they found nothing.

The grave of Nicholas II, Alexandra, Olga, Tatiana, Anastasia and their retainers was discovered in 1976, but wasn't publicly revealed by the discoverers until 1991. DNA testing, using Prince Philip of England's DNA  [he was related to the Czarina], proved the bodies were those of the Romanovs. After a funeral Mass, the Romanovs were buried in the St. Petersburg Cathedral. The bodies of Anastasia and her brother were discovered in 2007. Again DNA conclusively identified them, but the Russian Orthodox Church has questioned the finding, and as yet, they have not been interred with the family.

And the murder site? Once the death of the Romanovs was disclosed, it became a macabre tourist site, and an embarrassment to the Soviet Government. It was torn down, on their orders by a local engineer. the alacrity with which he accomplished the task put him on the fast rack for promotion in the communist Party. His name was Boris Yeltsin. 

They originated in the rocky Mountains - as Shoshone. But they were among the poorer members of that tribe, and when they got horses, probably from the Pueblo, after the revolt against the Spanish, they morphed into one of, if not the, most dominant, and important Indian 'tribes'  west of the Mississippi, the Comanche [from the Ute word 'Kimanzi', or Komanza' - 'enemy' or 'They ride against us'. their name for themselves 'Numurrunu' (accent marks unavailable].

No ground of Indians adapted as well to the horse as the Comanche. U.S Army officers referred to them as "the finest light cavalry in the world". They practiced battle drill with lances over 12' long, and would ride 10' rather than walk. They were among the first Indian horse breeders, and when they made peace on the northern reaches of Comancheria with the Wichita and Cheyenne, they purportedly gifted  the latter with thousands of horses.

When they debouched from the Rockies, and headed south, they initially encountered three things: the Southern Buffalo herds, other Indians they didn't know of, and the Apache. And they knew the Apache. And while they went to war with other Indians on the southern Plains, including the tonkowas, the Kiowa [later allies], the Cheyenne and Wichita [later allies or friends], they fought the Apache relentlessly, and continually, eventually driving them west into western New Mexico and Arizona [except for the Lipans, Jicarillas and Mescaleros-who survived on the fringe of what became known as Comancheria, comprising southern Kansas, eastern New Mexico, southeastern Colorado, western Oklahoma, much of Texas, and northern Chihuaha in Mexico.

And on the southern Plains, the Comanche prospered, to the point that by the 18th century, it was estimated that there were over 40,000 of them, augmented by other Shoshone bands who came to join them, because the Comanche, like their enemies, the apache were tribal in the linguistic sense only. They operated as bands and extended families. And some bands disappeared, others merged, some evolved into other bands. But they all had certain things in common. They spoke the same or similar language. They didn't war on each other. They tended to honor arrangements other bands made with third parties. And they warred and raided along their western and southern borders.

In the 18th century, the Comanche did the United States a major service. they blocked the Spanish from moving against the French to the east of Comancheria. By doing so, they prevented a superior military power to the French from arriving on the borders of the colonies before the Revolution, and kept two future American Allies in the same camp.

The Comanche also did a booming business with Spanish traders from New Mexico, the 'Comancheros', so booming, in fact, that at least one band made a treaty with the New Mexicans which allowed not only the Comancheros free passage on the Plains to trade, but allowed the Comanche to bring their loot, captured livestock and prisoners to New Mexican towns to trade. At one point, the Comanche allied with the New Mexicans and Navajo in a joint attack on the Apache.

With the independence of Texas, however, the Comanche faced an implacable enemy. The Texans had murdered a group of Comanches who had come in for a parley called by the Texans. The Comanche considered parleys sacrosanct [much like the Mongols with ambassadors] and the perfidy of the Texans opened a war that lasted, off and on until the 1870s. But small pox and cholera swept through the tribe, to the degree that they became a shadow of themselves, although still ready to fight any and all comers.

By the time of the Civil War, or shortly before, the Comanche were divided into six major bands. On their north were the Yampirikas, latest to the prairie, and most like their Shoshone cousins in language and custom. South of them were the Kotsetekas, then the Nokoni and then the all but vanished Penatakas. And to the west, on the Staked Plains were the Quahadi, the Antelope People, the 'wildest' of the bands.

Prior to the Civil War, the Comanche faced not only the U.S Army, but the Texas Rangers as well. In fact the Comanche had led to the first improvement to the Colt revolver, when a Ranger, one Captain Walker wrote to colt, suggesting improvements to his handgun. Colt met with Walker, the improvements were made, and the .44 caliber Walker Colt was born. It was a game changer. the colt had already given the Rangers a weapon that allowed re-firing without reloading after every shot, nullifying the Comanche tactic of charging after the first round, but the heavier bullet was much more likely to put an attacker down, and keep him down.

Still, in the 1850s, the Comanche under Buffalo Hump, burned a town on the Gulf of Mexico to the ground, and stole 1,000 horses [which were later lost to the Texans during the retreat], and raids to the southeast frontier kept the Texans on edge. But it was a losing proposition. Pressure from the Army increased, and by the early 1870s, most of the Comanche were confined on reservations. Except the Quahadis.

The Quahadis were led by a young, able war chief named Quanah [Odor]. Quanah was the son of a Penetaka war chief and a white captive named Cynthia Ann Parker [when 'freed' by the Cavalry, and returned to her family, she repeatedly tried to escape and return to the Comanche, and died either of a broken heart or self starvation]. And at first they ran rings around the cavalry. But the U.S. troops were led by one of, if not the best Indian fighters in the cavalry, Ranald S. MacKenzie, known as "Bad Hand" because of a hand maimed during the Civil War.

While Quanah ran rings around him, MacKenzie learned the lay of the land, what was working, what was not, and what was lacking.And in the late autumn of 1875, he put into practice what he had learned.

As with most Indians, the Quahadi went into winter camp. theirs was in the Palo Duro, a canyon carved in the Staked Plains that was deep, long, and almost invisible until you were on top of it. It offered shelter from the wind, water, wood, grass for the ponies, and[ostensibly] safety.

But not this time. MacKenzie appeared on the Canyon bluffs, and quickly found a way down. But rather than attack the Comanche, he shot their pony herd [some 800 horses]. and burned what food shelter, etc. they had abandoned when they fled.

He let winter do the rest. By Spring the Quahadis had surrendered. The war was over. Comancheria, except for a reservation at Fort Sill, was no more.

The Comanches approved extremely adaptable. they became cattle ranchers. Quanah, now Quanah Parker, became paramount chief, and proved as able an adversary in peace as he was at war.

Texas cattlemen wanted to drive their cattle to market over reservation land. Quanah agreed at so much a head. the Texans were delighted to meet an Indian they could do business with. Quanah built a large house for his family [he refused to abandon polygamy] and helped organize a tribal government and court acceptable to both Indians and whites. He required his own children to speak English, and made sure schooling was available. But he also looked out to preserve Indian culture, going all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court in a case that let Indians use peyote in their religious ceremonies. Quanah asl joined several other Indians in Teddy Roosevelt's inaugural parade.

The Comanche came full circle, in a sense, in the early 20th century, when they allowed their erstwhile enemies immemorial, the Apache, freed from their prisoner of war status in Florida and Alabama, to settle on their reservation in Oklahoma [the people of Arizona and New Mexico did not want the Chiricahua back]. Although some of the Apache later elected to return to their homeland when allowed, many didn't. They still live with the Comanche today.

And the Comanche? They served with distinction in the U.S. military ever since the Red River War. Like the Navajo, they served as code talkers in WW II. They ride with us, not against us.

With secession an unpleasant fact [several late seceding states like Virginia only leaving when Lincoln called for volunteers to crush the South], both sides scrambled to solve the problem of 'what to do? And the solution, for both sides, was to prepare militarily.

Lincoln got his volunteers. But they were novices to military culture. Additionally, the U.S Army didn't spread the regulars throughout the volunteer formations to leaven them, and lead them. Almost all active duty officers, NCOs and enlisted men, stayed in regular army units. The volunteers were sometimes led by former soldiers [Grant, Sherman], but were more likely led by politicians, or local worthies and men of property. In any case they had to be armed, uniformed, organized and trained. and the training was of short duration [most enlisted for 90 days], and woefully inadequate.

Things weren't much better in the south. They DID have a higher proportion of professional officers that volunteered for service with the confederacy [Lee, Johnson, Johnston, Beauregard, Stuart], and former officers [Jackson]. More of their troops were used to 'roughing it' more than their Union counterparts. But the South had no real military production capacity, a more limited infrastructure [think railroads], and a much shallower manpower pool [one reason the South resorted to conscription earlier than the Union].

Thus, for both disparate  and similar reasons, both sides sought an early confrontation, believing that the rebellion would be decided in one fell swoop [something like the Japanese dogmatic belief in the 'decisive naval battle' in WW II]. Interestingly, the early confrontation was not favored by the military professionals. But with Lincoln prodding, pushing and demanding, in July, 1861, what would eventually be the Army of the Potomac advanced south into Virginia under the command of BG Irwin McDowell.

The plan was overly complex, the troops woefully inadequate. But with 30,000 men, and a bit of luck, McDowell thought he could bring it off. He had the men, but not the luck.

20,000 rebel troops under GEN P.G.T. Beauregard awaited McDowell near Manassas, behind a creek called Bull Run. Beauregard knew McDowell was coming. He had been tipped by a Confederate spy ring in Washington led by Rose Greenhow. Up in the Shenandoah Valley, GEN Joseph Johnson also knew of McDowell's movement, and began transferring some 9,000 additional troops, by rail, to Manassas. So McDowell would find a Confederate force almost equal to his own on the battlefield.

To compound that problem McDowell's plan called for a pincer movement by 'green' troops  to complete a double envelopment of the Rebels.

Almost the entire battle was fought on McDowell's right [Beauregard's left] wing. At firs the Union troops drove the Confederates back after crossing Bull Run. But then they ran into a fortified position on high ground, held by the soon to be nicknamed "Stonewall" Jackson's brigade. The Union advance was stopped cold. At the same area, Jackson's cavalry, commanded by COL JEB Stuart, launched a vicious charge. Stuart captured the Union artillery, while Johnson's troops flanked the Union right. When the Union troops broke [the Union left did almost nothing during the battle], Stuart turned what might have been a retreat into a rout, driving the Union forces back over the Potomac. Fleeing with them were various civilians and politicians who had come to see the battle.

It was a Union catastrophe. McDowell lost around 2,000 men. Such losses had never been seen in America before. Aside from defending Washington, D.C from the rebels, the Union Army was incapable of any meaningful action.

Were there bright spots? Yes. William T. Sherman had covered a portion of the retreat/rout with his brigade, and done a masterful job. a young Lieutenant of Cavalry, one George Armstrong Custer had performed credibly. But McDowell had to go [he never commanded troops in the field again, exiled to San Francisco], establishing the tradition of revolving commanders that would bedevil the Army of the Potomac until just before Gettysburg and the ascension of MG George Gordon Meade.

And the Confederates? Bull Run was the first appearance on the stage of the Civil War of Joseph E. Johnson, Stonewall Jackson and JEB Stuart [Beauregard had debuted at Ft. Sumter, Lee was waiting in the wings]. Yet Beauregard was in disgrace with Jefferson Davis by 1863, and Johnson off and on by 1864. And Jackson was dead in 1863, and Stuart in 1864. And despite its initial poor showing at Bull Run, the Army of the Potomac, and the Union Army in general, would defeat the Confederacy in 1865.

In July, 1942, Reichsfuehrer SS Heinrich Himmler orders the evacuation of the Warsaw Ghetto to begin, with inmates to be sent to a new camp to the northeast of Warsaw, Treblinka.

Treblinka is something new in the Nazi camp system. It is one of several camps whose sole purpose is extermination. Along with Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibor, and Birkenau [the death camp that was part of the Auschwitz complex, Treblinka's sole purpose was to kill [except for a prisoner Sonderkommando kept on hand to dispose of the bodies, which was also periodically exterminated and replaced], as part of "Aktion Reinhardt", named for the recentrly assassinated SS LTG, and RSHA commander Reinhardt Heydrich.

But Treblinka had roots deep in Nazi killing, specifically to the "T 4" euthanasia program carried out against the German civil populace in 1939-1940.

Forced to close down because of public pressure whipped up by the Catholic church, the T 4 program [named for the address of its main office on Tiergarten #4 in Berlin] developed and coordinated the "mercy killing" of the infirm, congenitally ill or "feebleminded" and others considered "life unworthy of life", with the aim of freeing up hospital beds for the anticipated wounded of Hitler's war.

The killings were done via starvation, gassing [carbon monoxide], lethal injection and a host of other methods. And they were largely done by medical personnel. And once the program closed down, its personnel found employment further east.

One of the first was SS Hauptsturmfuehrer Christian Wirth, who became a kind of roving ambassador/advisor of death to the various camps springing up in Poland. But at Treblinka, the link was much closer. The first commandant was a Dr. Imfried Eberl, a medical doctor. Eberl had run one of the T 4 facilities, and had committed some of the murders. But at Treblinka, he would preside over killings on a scale he probably never imagined.

Within the first two months of Himmler's orders, some quarter million Jews were sent to Treblinka and killed. As wityh other death camps, efforts were made to lull the victims until the last moment. they were segregated by gender, told to strip and prepare for a shower. They were then herded up a roadway flanked by fencing, trees and guards with dogs, and driven into the gas chamber, where they were killed. their bodies were then removed, and despoiled of gold teeth. At Treblinka, it was not unusual for a trainload of victims to be dead within a half hour of arrival.

But Eberl was not successful in getting rid of the bodies. They began to stack up, to the point where incoming victims could see them, and react in a not so docile manner. As a result, Eberl was relieved and replaced by another old T 4 hand, Franz Stangl, whhjo had been security chief at one of the T 4 facilities, and more recently, deputy commandant at Sobibor.

Stangl quickly disposed of the bodies. He improved the deception tactics to lull incoming victims, to include a dummy train station with a false clock, and he developed a quick way to dispose of the bodies with pit burials.

Stangl remained commandant of Treblinka until it was closed, and dismantled. During its existence, some 960,000 Jews were killed there. and it had operated for a year or less.

John Herbert Dillinger, Public enemy #1, escape artist and bank robber extraordinaire, is killed in a hail of bullets fleeing a police/ FBI ambush outside Chicago's BIOGRAPH theater, where he had been seeing the movie MANHATTAN MELODRAMA with his girl friend, and one Anna Sage, the "Woman in Red" [her dress was actually orange].

Dillinger, whose life of crime went back to the 1920s, had 'hit the big time' when he received a 10 to 20 year sentence for a mugging. In prison, he met and was befriended by several hardened prisoners, who specialized in 'scientific' bank robberies. They included Harry Pierpont and homer Van Meter. Paroled himself, Dillinger began robbing banks and stores, raising money used to break his friends out of prison [successfully]. they then returned the favor, breaking Dillinger out of jail after he was re-arrested. A robbery of a police armory that yielded tommy guns, bullet proof vests and other delights, then saw the gang undertake a string of bank robberies that surpassed in scope and shortness of time anything that preceded them. In a little over a year, the gang robbed some 11 banks.

They were captured in Arizona on vacation. Dillinger was returned to Ohio where he escaped from jail using the so-called wooden gun. He put together a new gang, with Lester Gilles, a/k/a "Baby Face Nelson" and others, but they lacked the machine like efficiency of the earlier gang, and with Nelson, the results were a lot bloodier.

Dillinger was made for J. Edgar Hoover's never ending PR campaign to build up the FBI. But he disproved the adage no publicity is bad publicity with the botched FBI raid on the Little Bohemia lodge. Three civilians were shot by the FBI [one was killed]. Nelson killed an FBI agent and a police officer [Nelson would go on to kill a total of three FBI agents, a 'record' that still stands]. All the criminals escaped.

Dillinger then underwent plastic surgery [ not a very good job], and burned his fingerprints with acid. He was hiding out in Chicago, when Sage, a Romanian fighting extradition over brothel keeping flipped him into law enforcement in the hopes of avoiding deportation, and claiming the $10,000 dollar reward on Dillinger  [she failed on both counts]. She told the FBI Dillinger would be with her at the movies, and that she would be wearing an orange dress as a signal.

Dillinger was caught coming out of the theater. He fled into an alley where he was killed, ostensibly after drawing an automatic pistol. America's crime prince of the '30s was dead.

George Soros may very well be orchestrating the next civil war, by exasperating race relations, condemning the police, and general anarchy, etc.  The enemies of the state keep growing and committing criminal acts that do not lead to indictments.  How many innocent people must die because of truly despicable people like Soros?

How the Catholic church has changed. This Pope was for Charlie Gard to die.
I really like reading Hitler history.

The last few popes reflect the internal decay of the Roman Catholic Church.  Let's see, we had one that was a Nazi fighting for Adolph Hitler, another that has become a saint that condemned America's capitalism, and now this fool, who is what, a quasi socialist/communist. 

I was raised in this church, and I now despise these men and their sick life they lead, many of them predator pedophiles, and on a global basis.  I believe this church system of organized crime for pedophilia is dying, and rightfully so.  I think the movie Spotlight shone a very bright light on just how rotten these sick men are!

It is no small number of children these men have preyed upon.  Hundreds of thousands in the USA alone, and I presume millions throughout the world.  The movie Spotlight mentions one family where all seven children in the family have been sexually assaulted by the parish priest, and the church pleads with the mother of these children not to go public, and she complies.  How sick is that?  I would want that priest publicly drawn and quartered, literally!

I was raised in this church too. This pope walked down the streets of (forget what city) with a Cardinal who helped many pedophile priests. This new pope is pure evil. I even think that Cardinal had been accused of pedophilia himself. It is hard to watch the crowds of people who adore him.

Their origin is shrouded in mystery. According to some, they were the dreaded Hsung Nu of ancient China infamy, the nomad horsemen from the Ordos Loop, who terrorized the Chinese with their raids, helped cause the expansion of the Great Wall, and led to the Chinese military organizing and driving them from eastern Asia. Yet others disagree that the Hsung Nu and the Huns are the same people.

What all do agree on is that the people we know as the Huns erupted onto the Pontic and Ukrainian steppe in the 4th century A.D., and drove west, conquering the peoples they met and subjugating them under such mythic chiefs as Balombar. And they put in motion forces that led, eventually, to the destruction of the western Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire was already, administratively and politically, divided into two halves. Each half had an emperor and a deputy [a Caesar]. And each faced increasing pressure from their borders from barbarian tribes seeking admission to the Roman Empire as refugees. And the reason was the Huns.

When the Huns arrived in the western steppe, they were confronted by what appeared to be a formidable enemy, the Ostrogoths. The Ostrogoths had arrived on the steppe earlier, having migrated east form northern Germany in a clockwise movement. They built towns, and developed an agricultural economy, and by the time of the Huns' arrival, they had established a state and an army. It did them little good.

The Huns were no the first horse army the people of the west faced. But they came with two key advantages, large numbers of compound bows, and the stirrup, which allowed them to raise up and fire arrows both more quickly, and more accurately. the Huns also made use of lariats, to rope, and drag individual enemy soldiers off their feet [useful to break a shield wall. What the Huns lacked, was military organization. While they fought as a mass, they did not, like the Mongols, have military units or hierarchy, and each tribe in the Hunnic confederation, fought under their own chiefs, under Hunnic overlordship.

And the Huns had many such vassals, including, by the time they rode into Hungary, the Ostrogoths.

But the Hunnic invasion was like a cue ball hitting a rack of pool balls. Pressure from the Huns drove the remnants of the Ostrogoths west, who drove the Visigoths to seek entry into the eastern Roman Empire. And Roman malfeasance drove the Visigoths, Foederati in the roamn Army to rebel, and eventually sack Rome. And the Visigoths rode on into Iberia, followed by the Vandals, the Alans, the Franks, and others, basically carving up the Western Roman Empire into their own Kingdoms [there was a Visigothic Kingdom centered on tolouse, the Vandals took Carthage, the Franks settled around what became Paris, etc.

And the Eastern Empire was in no position to help, because they now faced the Huns across the Danube. And the Huns now had a single leader, since Attila had murdered his brother, and co-ruler, Bleda.

A pattern then developed. the Huns would raid the Eastern Empire until they were bought off with tribute [think Vikings on horses]. The Huns would then withdraw, until either of two things happened; the Eastern Empire coughed up tribute without a Hunnic invasion, or the Eastern Empire coughed up the tribute after a Hunnic invasion when the tribute was not forthcoming.

And so it might have gone, but for the Eastern Empire directing enough military force northward to make Attila think twice [and almost pushing him against the western Empire], and for the western imperial princess, Honoria's, letter to Attila, with her ring, asking him to marry her, and save her from an engagement to a Roman Senator. Attila accepted, and claimed half the Western roman Empire as his dowry. Rome refused his claim, and for that, and other reasons, Attila led an army west, initially to great success. But at the Catauplanian Plains, a combined Roman-Visigoth Army met, and defeated, the Huns and their vassals in battle. Attila was forced to retreat. But the next year he came back, driving initially, down the eastern side of Italy, taking, among other cities, Aquelia, whose citizens fled into the coastal swamps, and founded Venice. It was while on the road to Rome that we are told Attila met envoys from the Pope, and agreed to withdraw. The probability is that disease, a poor harvest in Italy, and supply problems had more to do with the withdrawal than the holy Father.

Attila never came west again. On his wedding night to a woman named Idilco, Attila died. And although it wasn't buried with him, with his death the Hunnic Empire died as well. His sons were at odds, the Eastern Romans smelled blood, the Germanic vassals were in rebellion, and Turks were beginning to appear in the East. Defeated in battle by Goths, and Eastern Romans, Attila's Hungarian Empire disintegrated, and the Huns vanished, as a people, back into the East.

The ship had been, at one time ADM. Raymond Spruance's flagship. President Roosevelt had traveled on her. She became a part of the backstory on one of Peter Benchley's most famous characters in "JAWS", Quint. she had delivered the atomic bomb that would be dropped on Hiroshima, to Tinian. And on this date in 1945, she would be sunk by a Japanese submarine.

After delivering the bomb, INDIANAPOLIS steamed to Guam, from where she was ordered to rendezvous with other naval units [a battleship], for further operations. It was on this leg of her journey that she ran into the Japanese submarine I-58 on the night of July 29-30.

I-58, at a range of some 1,000 yards, give or take, put two torpedoes into INDIANAPOLIS. The first hit toward the bow, the second further to the rear. INDIANAPOLIS sunk in some 12 minutes, with 900 crewmen surviving the attack.

It was then that the crew's ordeal truly began. INDIANAPOLIS, because of her A-bomb delivery had been running under operational silence. And since she was not expected for her rendezvous any time soon, she fell "off the map". Her survivors would not be sighted for another four days. And those four days were four days in hell, the result of the  single largest shark attack in history.

The sharks, with oceanic white tips being the greatest aggregate, and Tigers and other Pelagics involved, appeared almost immediately. The White Tips went for live crewmen first. And since many survivors were in the water, clinging to debris, they were easy prey. The attacks continued, almost non-stop for the full four days. By the time the men were rescued, approximately two-thirds, some 600 men had been killed by the sharks.

And rescue didn't put an end to the suffering. INDIANAPOLIS' captain, Charles McVay was courtmartialled for negligent operation of his ship. Tthe basis for the charge was failing to zig zag in a hostile combat zone. The government even brought the I-58's commander to Washington to testify that INDIANAPLOIS was not zig zagging when torpedoed [He also stated that the failure to zig zag would have made no difference to the success of his attack, based on the relative positions of the two ships]. McVay was convicted, unjustly as far as his crew was concerned, of the charge [McVay had been largely responsible for organizing the survivors after the sinking and leading them of the four days]. McVay was finally exonerated in 2000, in part because of a letter written by I-58's captain. Unfortunately, it was too late for McVay. He had committed suicide in November, 1968.

The document was deceptive in its simplicity. Hermann Goering, as Hitler's number 2, head of the four Year Plan, and the man in charge of Jewish affairs [He once stated, "I decide who's a Jew"], issued a written order to SS  Obergruppenfuehrer Reinhardt Heydrich, Chief of the RSHA and SS SD, requiring an overall plan for the "Final Solution of the Jewish question". Within six months, Heydrich will use that written order at the Wannsee conference to establish SS primacy, both as executive and coordinating agency for what will become the industrialized murder of the European Jews under Nazi control, the Holocaust [Heydrich had already sent four Einsatzgruppen, organized under the basis used in Poland, to begin the extermination of the Jews in Russia, along with Communist Party functionaries. and others].

By the time Goering had issued the order, Heydrich had already begun taking steps that would facilitate its implementation. Jews in eastern Europe were concentrated in Ghettos. Anti-Jewish regulations, and in some places laws, were implemented in both eatern and western Europe. And when the final Solution was undertaken, the Germans would empty the eastern Ghettos first, while transporting the Jews from further west to replenish them, before their own murders.

Goering's order was, in a way, the end to a debate that had raged in the organs of the Reich almost since the seizure of power, i.e., what to do with the Jews. There had been powerful forces that merely wanted to isolate the Jews. Others, and a more prevalent group, wanted to expel them, either by coercive emigration, or forced expulsion [It was members of the SS SD who floated the idea of a Jewish preserve in Madagascar]. But with Goering's order, the addition of some several million Russian, Belorussian, Ukrainian and eastern Polish Jews, and the SS's assumption of direction of the Jewish issue, all other possibilities gave way to one Extermination.

The maneuvering had started while Reich President Paul Von Hindenburg was still alive. By mid-1934, Adolf Hitler had established his dictatorship at unbelievable speed, aided by the Reichstag Fire, and the resultant 'Enabling Act', the propaganda genius of Paul Joseph Goebbels, and the uptick in the economy. And by June, 1934, Hitler faced only two potential challengers to his authority; his own SA, or Storm Troopers [the Brown Shirts], and the German military, particularly the German Army. And then he was able to not only kill two birds with one stone, as it were, he laid the groundwork for slaying the third, most important bird.

When Hitler moved against the SA, the SS did most of the dirty work. But they had a silent partner, the German Army, which loaned them transport and weapons for what became the 'Night of the Long Knives'. and the army acted for reasons of its own. Ernst Roehm's open and loud calls for a " Second Revolution" coupled with his demand for the Army's absorption into a national defense force under his, and SA, control troubled the officer Corps. His 4.5 million Brownshirts terrified them. And then there was the Army leadership. The defense minister, Field Marshal von Blomberg, was sympathetic to the Nazi's program, to say the least. General von Reichenau was a Nazi himself, in all but name. And they were two of the top three Generals Hitler dealt with.

And those generals not as disposed to the Nazis were quiet. When Gen. Kurt von Schleicher, a former Chancellor was murdered in his house with his wife during the Night of the Long Knives, few generals expressed their outrage. And part of the reason was that Hitler was rearming the German Army, and had already told the generals there would be a threefold expansion of the Heere in 1935, breaking the Versailles Treaty into tiny pieces.

Hindenburg had put his imprimatur on the Night of the Long Knives, but his health failing the Field Marshal was not long for this world. And when he passed, the Nazis gave him a Wagnerian send off at the Potsdam Garrison Church. And then Hitler sprung the trap. First he combined the offices of Chancellor and President, with himself taking the combined office, as "Fuehrer". Then, the German Armed Forces from General and Admiral down to private and seaman took a PERSONAL oath of allegiance to Adolf Hitler. Their uniforms soon sported various forms of the national eagle clutching a swastika over their right breast pocket [the Waffen SS wore theirs on their left sleeve], and various forms of the same eagle/ swastika on their hats and caps.

No one capable of meaningful resistance stood in Hitler's way now.

By the time U.S. troops landed on Saipan, the "key" to Japan's inner defensive ring, and then Tinian and Guam, even the Japanese realized they weren't going to defeat the United States in the conventional military sense of the word. and with good reason. By the end of 1944, ALL of Japan's aircraft carriers would be sunk, one of her two super battleships would be below the waves [MUSASHI], and the effectiveness of her airpower was reduced to suicide attacks on U.S. ships.

So a new approach was needed, and the Japanese opted for attrition. They based their defensive plans on inflicting massive losses on U.S. forces while fighting largely defensive battles from built up lines of fortifications. Gone would be the serial 'Banzai" charges of Guadalcanal, and the suicidal counterattacks at the earliest moment. the Japanese, rather, would wait for the Americans until after they landed and then fight an almost purely defensive battle, seeking to kill and wound maximum numbers of Americans while selling their own lives [and they knew they were where they were to die] dearly.

The new 'strategy' appeared, on an ad hoc basis, in the Philippines, especially in Manila, when an Admiral subordinate to General Yamash*ta disobeyed a direct order to leave Manila an open city, fighting to the last man [with the de rigeur ritual suicide when all was lost], and resulting in Yamash*ta's execution of the act after the war.

The policy became formalized in the next two major U.S. operations, Iwo Jima and Okinawa. It was here, especially on Okinawa that the Japanese strategy was both apparent, and utilized to full effect. For aside from the Japanese troops dug in on the Shuri line, Okinawa utilized not only swarms of Japanese Kamikaze pilots to attack naval units, but also involved the novelty [as it were] of a Kamikaze battleship. YAMATO, the world's largest battleship was sent on a one way run to Okinawa with a light cruiser and seven destroyers, where she was to ground herself, and act as  fire support for the Japanese Army. She was spotted and sunk by U.S. naval airpower well away from the island.

But the defense of both Iwo Jima and Okinawa resulted in horrendous casualties, for both sides. the U.S. losses on Iwo were in excess of 7,000 dead. On Okinawa they were some three times higher. and the Japanese lost some 100,000 troops on Okinawa.

So did the new strategy work? Yes and No. Under the Japanese concept, the punishing U.S losses would force the U.S. to seek a negotiated peace. The other part of that strategy involved the U'S's ally, and signer of a Non-Aggression pact with Japan, the U.S.S.R.

Japan began to solicit the U.S.S.R to act as an intermediary in starting peace talks with the U.S. Not only did the Soviets refuse to do so, they announced their intention to cancel the non-aggression agreement [Japan was unaware Stalin had promised the Americans to attack Japan 90 days after the end of the war in Europe. And the Japanese had failed to realize that their strategy, while daunting the Americans about a seaborne invasion of Japan, did not result in a U.S refusal to do so, but, rather , caused the Americans to consider alternate means to force a Japanese surrender. Air bombardment was largely ruled out, because Curtis Lemay had reduced almost every major city in Japan to cinders. Protracted naval interdiction of Japanese supply lines was pushed by the Navy, but did not promise immediate results. And then there was the atomic bomb.

The Atom bomb [there were two types, a uranium bomb and a plutonium bomb], was the result of a scientific effort called the Manhattan Project. And by summer of 1945, the bomb had been tested, and two operational bombs, 'Little Boy' [uranium], and 'Fat Man' [plutonium] were ready to go. And when Japan refused yet another U.S. call to surrender, the new President, Harry Truman, who had been unaware of the Manhattan Project's existence until he had taken office, authorized the bomb's use on Japan.

'Little Boy' was then transported to Tinian by U.S.S INDIANAPOLIS, where in the earlymorning of August 6, 1945, it was loaded onto the B-29 'ENOLA GAY', commanded by Col. Paul Tibbetts. Tibbetts was one of the Army Air Corps most experienced bomber pilots, having flown in Europe before transferring to the Pacific, and he and his crew had been training for use of the A-bomb for months.

ENOLA GAY lifted off around 0230, and reached Japan some six hours later. The primary target being obscured by cloud cover, Tibbetts headed for his secondary target, Hiroshima.

Hiroshima was one of the chief anchorages for what was left of the Imperial Japanese Navy. It was also the command center for the defense of the southern Japanese defense zone [including the island of Kyushu, the proposedlanding site for Operation Olympic], and the chief debarkation/embarkation port for troops from the Asian mainland into Japan, and then on to Kyushu. In sum, even exempting its war industries, it was a legitimate military target [generations of lefties to the contrary]

Within ten minutes of ENOLA GAY's arrival,a good portion of Hiroshima was a smoldering wasteland. The immediate casualties were horrific enough [the long term casualties from radiation poisoning were worse], and yet, Japan refused to countenance surrender, despite the fact that their attrition strategy had not yet worked.

It took a second bomb, on Nagasaki, coupled with a Soviet declaration of war, and blitz of Manchuria, the Korean peninsula and the Sakhalin islands to bring Japan to its knees, and agree to surrender on 15 August.

So did the Japanese strategy work. In a sense, Yes. It forced the Americans to look for an alternate method [to amphibious landings] to bring the Japaneseto the point of surrender. But it failed in the sense that the alternative the U.S found was not the negotiations the Japanese expected, but, rather, another method to force a surrender.

But, in one sense, the Japanese 'won'. The U.S. had been demanding 'unconditional surrender' of the Axis powers since 1943. That position was adhered to in the surrenders of Italy and Germany. But in the case of Japan, the Japanese wrung one concession out of the Americans. Hirohito kept his throne.

Perhaps the greatest decision made by a president in our history.  My view, if it meant saving one Allied life, it was worth it.  The projections for an invasion of Japan was 1 million Allied casualties.  1 MILLION DEAD OR WOUNDED!

And the liberal revisionists would have you believe it was not necessary.  Fact is, Japan successfully tested a nuclear weapon in Korea.  And Japan had been testing biological weapons in China and planned an eight engine bomber that would have a range that would reach halfway across the continental USA.  Had Japan had just six more months, the whole outcome of the war could have been altered.

There are people today, per a History Channel program, still dying in China as a result of the bio weapons unleashed by Japan upon China. 

Finally, the USA is completely on the wrong side of the dispute between Japan and China, which still exists today.  Japan murdered 40 million Chinese during World War II.  China suffered more in terms of loss of citizens than any other country.  I have no love for Japan.  NONE!

My father fought in the Pacific during WWII, and he went to his death without ever uttering a single word to me regarding the war.  He refused to talk about it.  He was at Saipan, which was horrendously bloody for our troops, Okinawa, Leyte Gulf and Luzon, as well as two other landings.  He drove a landing craft, and I know he saw hundreds, if not thousands of USA dead as he drove his craft to the beaches.

Japan has NEVER answered for what they did to China.  That day will come one day in the future.  And in my humble opinion, it would be criminal for American politicians to send Americans to their death defending Japan.  What is truly sad is that 98% or higher in America are clueless about history from any period, let alone WWII era.  The young today are lucky they can find their posterior to wipe when needed.  Uggh.  America could not be dumber if it tried.  Sad!

He had beaten them in a previous war lasting some five years. So when the Visigoths rose in revolt against the Eastern Roman Empire, the Emperor Valens thought he could do it again. So sure was he of success that he moved out without waiting for troops from the Western empire to reinforce him. his confidence was his undoing.

Valens found the Visigoths near Adrianople, and he found them divided, since many of their warriors, especially cavalry, were missing. without bothering to ascertain where the missing troops were, Valens decided to attack what was in front of him, expecting to inflict a massive defeat on them before the rest of their army appeared.

The Visigoths had first appeared in the eastern empire as a result of the pressure from the Ostrogoths, who were fleeing westward under pressure from the Huns. Allowed to cross the Danube, the Visigoths became "Foederati", allies who sent men to serve in the roman Army. But as more and more Visigoths crossed the border, Roman alarm, and antipathy rose, the Visigoths found themselves abused,exploited and starved. Hence the first war, and then the revolt that brought Valens to Adrianople.

At first it seemed Valens had made the correct decision. His legions pushed the Visigoths in front of them back. Victory appeared imminent. But victory proved ephemeral, because at that moment the Visigothic cavalry returned to what was now a battlefield, and hit the Romans from the rear. Retreat turned to rout, discipline to panic. Some two-thirds of the Roman force, including Valens, were killed.

Adrianople resulted in the Eastern Empire being thrown into chaos. The Visigoths sacked and plundered the Balkans while Valens' successor sought to stop them. But the most important result of Adrianople was far more lasting. Adrianople established the supremacy of the cavalry over the infantry until the Hundred Years War, over 1,000 years in the future. And it took the longbow men of Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt to change that.

It had already started by July. But in a sense, it was a false start. The Luftwaffe had begun operations, largely successful, to sweep British shipping from the English Channel. And those operations allowed the German Me 109s to provide fighter cover for the bombers [He 111s, Do 17s and Ju 87s] that pounded the British ships they found in  the Channel. By August, Channel shipping was largely shut down.

Then on august 13th, 1940, Hermann Goering arrived at the Pas de Calais to observe the first round of 'Eagle Day', the opening of the air offensive against the British mainland, with the objectives of attaining air superiority, if not supremacy, over England's south coast [the proposed invasion area for 'Sea Lion'], reducing the Royal Air force to insignificance, and helping to force a surrender on the British government.

The opening day saw massive waves of German aircraft attacking England from several directions: Kesselring and Sperrle from France and Belgium, and Stumpf from Norway [Luftflotte V], with some successes and some failures, particularly Stumpf. Airflotte V's bomber force was composed, almost exclusively of Ju 87 Stukas. They proved easy pickings for the British Hawker Hurricanes and Supermarine Spitfires, being excruciatingly slow and underarmed defensively. Airflotte V was soon withdrawn form the attack, having suffered heavy losses. and the Luftwaffe High Command [and the world] learned that Germany's primary attack aircraft was only viable if air supremacy, air superiority with fighter cover, or heavy fighter cover was involved.

Elsewhere, however, the Germans fared better, scoring some major successes against British airfields in the  south. But the Germans failed to take notice of the significance of the British Radar stations strung along the southern coast. the attacks left them largely alone. and the attack pattern failed to follow a cohesive plan, jumping from one target to another, allowuing the British to repair bomb damage between visits.

The Germans also failed to appreciate the combination of British Radar and the command and control system the British had. Radar allowed the RAF to keep its fighters based further north, to keep its pilots on standby on the ground, only to be sent airborne, and vectored into attacking German formations, when  the radar told them where the Germans were, and were going.

The Battle of Britain also showed the weaknesses in the Luftwaffe's equipment [other than the Ju 87]. German bombers were all two engine machines. While very well suited for close support of the German Army, the Luftwaffe had no heavy bombers [they never would]. That dream had died with the death, in an air crash, of Walter Wever, the first Chief of Staff of the Luftwaffe. So Luftwaffe bombers had limited range, limited bomb loads, and very limited defensive armament. They were so suited for tactical as opposed to strategic bombing that the Luftwaffe rejected the U.S. Norden bomb sight, stolen by a German agent shortly before the war, because their bombers didn't bomb from high altitude. And all models, which first entered service in the mid-30s, relied on speed for defense. Unfortunately for their crews, by 1940, Allied fighter planes were now much faster than the bombers.

And the fighter situation wasn't much better. The principal fighter, the Me 109 was not as maneuverable as the Spitfire [it could hold its own with the Hawker Hurricane], although it could climb and dive way above the Spitfire's ability [fuel injected engines]. It's principal weakness was fuel capacity. Me 109s had a fairly limited flight time. and while this was not noticeable during the channel oprations, and not appreciably noticeable during the opening of the offensive, it was when hitler ordered a shift to bombing London and other population centers. An Me 109 could only stay over London for a short period of time. And when they withdrew, the British fighters, just to their north were free to fall on, and slaughter the German bombers.

And then there was the Me 110, the Zerstorer ['Destroyer'], a two engined 'heavy' fighter [possibly the brainchild of Goering himself] that was supposed to fly close support for the bombers. Unwieldy and slow, the Me 110 was incapable of coping with the Hurricanes and Spitfires. It was so poorly equipped for its mission that when attacked, the Me 110s would fly in a circular formation ["circle up the wagons"] to protect each other. On at least one occasion, Me 109s provided fighter cover for the Me 110s [they would, however make formidable night fighters latter in the war]. they were soon withdrawn from the battle.

Their withdrawal led Goering to order his Me 109s to fly close escort for the bombers, negativing their advantages over the RAF, and leading to increased losses for the Germans, which since they were flying over an enemy island , meant that every pilot parachuting from his plane was a loss, whether he died or not, since the Germans couldn't recover him.

And those aircraft losses, coupled with their losses in France, highlighted yet another area of vulnerability for the Germans, their inability to replace their aircraft losses at a rate commensurate with their losses over Britain.

In late August, a He 111 , attempting to bomb docking facilities in the Thames, missed, and bombed a populated area [contrary to Hitler's and Goering's orders [the pilot was court-martialed. But it served as a basis for Churchill to order the bombing of German cities, and Hitler took the bait. The Luftwaffe was loosed on London, and population centers. what attention had been paid to airfields and radar facilities disappeared [the cancellation of 'Sea Lion' may have had a contributing effect]. and the increasing German losses led to a changeover to night bombing. By Spring the bombing had largely ceased, since the bulk of the Luftwaffe had moved east - for Barbarossa. Whatever the goals and hopes of Eagle Day were done. Britain still stood. Her air force had blunted, then turned back the Germans. the air offensive over Britain had failed. All the Germans accomplished was to sow the wind. they would soon reap the whirlwind.

 

He came briefly in 1950. By the end of 1951 he was playing right field next to the man he would succeed in Center, Joe DiMaggio. His name was Mickey [for Mickey Cochrane, his father's favorite player] Charles Mantle. In his early days in the minors, he was called "The Commerce Comet". But for those of us who grew up with him, watched him, and worshipped him, he was "Mickey", or "The Mick".

Mickey Mantle was injured in the 1951 World Series. the Yankee manager, Casey Stengel told Mantle to go for anything in right, or right center, because DiMaggio was slowing down, and had an injured heel. what he failed to tell Mantle was that DiMaggio would not call for a ball until he was absolutely sure he could get it. The result? Mantle had to pull up short at top speed going for a fly when DiMaggio called him off. Mickey's cleats got stuck in a drainage grate and he tore up his knee. And DiMaggio's first words of the year to the kid were "Don't move. they're bringing a stretcher for you".

Although the injury took away his blazing speed [No one has ever beaten Mantle's time from the plate to first base lefty], Mick went on to a storied career. Triple Crown winner. MVP three times. 7 time World Series winner, and just a shade under a .300 career hitter [Mantle later said if he'd realized his last season would have dropped him below .300, he would have retired earlier than he did].

But there was a dark side to the Mick. His father  and Uncle died young. He believed he would too. As a result, he drank to excess [he became an alcoholic], caroused, cheated on his wife, and was an absent father.

And then, as it does with all ball players, the end of his career came. He retired in 1968. And from there, he earned his living at memorabilia events, and as a greeter [with willie Mays] in Atlantic City [for which he was suspended from baseball for a time].

But his welcome at Old timers' Day at the Stadium was always riotous [DiMaggio had it put in his contract that he always came out last. It did him little good. mickey had supplanted him with the fans]. And he had two Mickey Mantle Days.

But the hard life he lived caught up with him. His liver was failing, and after a transplant, he developed liver cancer that metasticized.

Mickey Mantle used his remaining time to do two things, lobby for organ transplants and donations, and to tell the young, and his fans, not to emulate him, or use him as a roll model.

Mickey Mantle died on August 13th, 1995. But in his last days, he lived out the last innings as he played, a hero.

I grew up with Mickey Mantle. He came up for good when I was in first grade. He retired the year I graduated college. In my [aging] eyes, we will not likely see his like again. Miss you, Mick...
 ,

When I was six years of age, I was visiting relatives in Washington DC.  We went to see the Washington Senators play the New York Yankees while there, and I saw Mickey Mantle and Roger Marris hit back to back home runs.  It was an exciting game.

Mr. Baseball for me was Roberto Clemente.  Saw him throw on the fly to the catcher while standing at the wall in right field, and the catcher would tag the base runner out virtually every time.  I have never seen anyone play like him in my life.  For me, he was the best.  I have many fond memories going to the Pirate games with my father as a boy.

1948: George Herman 'Babe Ruth dies of throat cancer-

Babe Ruth, the greatest baseball player in history, dies after a lengthy battle with throat cancer at the age of 53. Ruth , who started his career as a pitcher with the Boston Red Sox, gained his greatest fame as the slugging right fielder for the New York Yankees. He finished his career with the Boston Braves.

Ruth's records were legion. At one point he led all baseball in most homers for a season, most career homers and slugging percentage. But he had also held the record for the most shutout innings in World Series games, until eclipsed by Whitey Ford. He stole home ten times in his career. He won, or saved some five games for the Yankees as a pitcher

Famed for his work with children, Ruth's body laid in state in Yankee Stadium for two days after his death, and was viewed by thousands. He used no performance enhancing substances except beer and hot dogs. He is STILL the face of the game!



1977: Elvis Presley dies-

Elvis Presley, dies of a heart attack, most likely brought on by his drug addiction. Presley, the "King of rock 'n Roll" was a major force in bringing Rock to a height of popularity in the '50s. But a string of mostly forgettable movies, coupled with the inept management of Col. Parker, and a stint in the Army, slowed his career down in the '60s [The British Invasion didn't help]. A TV special in the 70s resurrected his concert career [his record career was spotty], and he toured until his death. He was 42.

It was briefly portrayed in a scene in the Mel Gibson movie, "The Patriot". It was the result of George Washington being overruled in his choice of general to lead the Southern Armies by the political cabals in congress. And it led to a disasterous defeat for the southern Continentals.

After campaigning mostly in the northern and middle colonies during 1776-1779, the British decided on a southern strategy [Their only foray there early in the war had been a failure]. the British commander, Sir Henry Clinton, reasoned that at least half of the southern colonists were loyalists, and that they could be rallied to the Royal cause. He also planned to raise Loyalist units, and, more controversially, free, and arm, runaway slaves who would fight for the Crown.

At first, Clinton's strategy was a smashing success. The British, reinforced from Florida, took Savannah, and moved on to several other Patriot enclaves. Most of the uniformed Continentals were killed, captured or fled. Guerilla warfare increasingly became the norm. and largely as a war among neighbors, it became increasingly vicious.

Congress needed to appoint a commander for those Patriot troops left in the south. and there was the problem. Washington wanted to send Gen. Nathaniel Greene. But certain factions in Congress opposed Washington, led on by a cabal of officers who thought there were others better suited for the job. their choice was Horatio Gates, victor and 'hero' of Saratoga.

Gates, a former British Army officer [long before the war], thought, in fact, he, not Washington, should have commanded the continental Army [as did Charles Lee and a host of others]. But he took up his command with alacrity, and joined his Army in south Carolina. He then force marched his troops, who were ill-equipped, ill-clothed and ill-fed through the hot humid South Carolina weather to contact with the British Army commanded by Lord Charles Cornwallis. And despite the fact that almost a third of his army was hors de combat due to dysentery, malnutrition and heat related illness, Gates attacked.

The result was a foregone conclusion. The local militia broke when the British launched a bayonet charge. Only the heroic defense [and death] of MG Johann De Kalb [a volunteer from Germany], allowed any of the Americans to escape. With niggling losses on his own side, Cornwallis killed, or captured almost half of Gates' force.

But not Gates. He fled the battlefield ahead of his fleeing troops, and did not stop until three days had elapsed, and he was in north Carolina, from where he notified the congress of his failure.

Gates never held a command again. His failure  was cause enough, but his flight  silenced his supporters. He was replaced by Nathaniel Greene, Washington's original choice for the post.

And Clinton's strategy? Camden was the high point. Greene, the former quartermaster of the Continental Army re-supplied, reinforced, and re-purposed his army. Additionally, the guerilla warfare behind Cornwallis' lines got worse. to the point where many Southern loyalists gave up the battle. And then there were the defeats. First King's Mountain. Then Cowpens. Then Guilford courthouse, where Cornwallis held the field [by firing artillery into his own troops], but lost over 25% of his army [and he had already burned his supply train]. Greene saw Cornwallis off to Virginia and eventual surrender to Washington.

The Indians we call Sioux [from a Chippewa or Ojibway word meaning 'snake'] originated in the woodlands of Minnesota. The three main tribal subdivisions were known as Dakota [those in Minnesota], Nakota [to their west], and Lakota [the Plains Sioux], and by 1862, the Dakota were having a tough time.

Living on a reservation that was a sliver of their former lands, the Dakota [or Santee Sioux]tried to make it in the White Man's world. They took up farming. Many, including their chief, Little Crow, attended church services. But the problems they were facing in 1862 were immense.

Their crops had failed, and people were starving. Their Indian agent was neither particularly honest, nor sympathetic [When told of their plight, he supposedly said, "let 'em eat grass"]. In short, it was a powder keg waiting to explode. And it did, on this date in 1862.

The immediate cause was several young warriors stealing eggs. Caught by the farmer, an argument ensued. That escalated to violence, and by the time the Indians rode away, five whites were dead. And when the tribal council heard of the act, fearful of the repercussions, and weary of their treatment by the whites, they decided war was their only recourse. Little Crow, initially opposed to war, wound up leading the Indians in their raids.

They started on their own reservation. The Indian agent, his mouth stuffed with grass, was later found dead in front of his office. the Indians then struck up and down the Minnesota River [where their reservation was], killing hundreds of white settlers. But because they burned the reservation buildings, settlers were aware that something was wrong, and fled ahead of the Indians.

The Sioux eventually attacked the settlement of New Ulm, but the settlers, having had warning, had fortified, as best they could, their town. and while the Indians breached the perimeter, and torched much of New Ulm, they neither took it, burned it all, nor drove the whites out.

The Indians had some success with the Army [and militia], laying siege for several days to Fort Ridgely, and ambushing some patrols sent out from the fort. At the same time, their raids encompassed more of the state, driving further and further north.

The Santee soon stopped mail traffic, destroyed stagecoach posts, and attacked, unsuccessfully, a Hudson's Bay fort [Abercrombie]. They also fought and defeated a military column looking for survivors, and bodies to bury. But that was their last success.

Abraham Lincoln sent MG John Pope [loser at Second Manassas] to put down the uprising. Rallying several Minnesota volunteer regiments, he went in search of the Indians. He found, and crushed them, at Wood Lake, in September. Most of the Indians surrendered. Some fled to the Plains [Inkapuda comes to mind], embroiling the Army in the opening moves of war with the Lakota that lasted a decade plus, some to Canada. Little Crow disappeared.

The Minnesotans howled for blood [how times have changed], and 300 Indians were sentenced to death after trial. but Lincoln commuted all but 38 of the death sentences. Yet the hanging of the 38 was the largest single execution in U.S. history. As for the rest, the Santee Sioux were banished from Minnesota, first to one place, then another [except for one band that had remained neutral or helped white settlers]. And Little Crow? He was killed almost a year later by a farmer, while he and his son were picking berries. His skull and scalp were not returned by the state to his descendants until 1971.

Little Crow's War [along with Cochise's war in Arizona], was the first taste of what would be decades of hostilities between the United States and various Indian tribes. Its ferocity, coming as it did from supposedly pacified Indians, shocked at surprised the Americans. Nobody knows exactly how many settlers and soldiers died, but it was in the hundreds. And it could have been avoided.

It was called Operation 'Husky'. It was the latest success by Winston Churchill in getting FDR to overrule his generals' desire to land in France and open the second front. It was the only invasion of WW II that relied in part on the cooperation of an American gangster and the Sicilian Mafia. It was the invasion of Sicily. And it brought into the open a simmering dislike of field level American generals with the hero of Britain, GEN Bernard Law Montgomery.

Churchill had previously obtained FDR's agreement to an invasion of North Africa, with U.S., French and Commonwealth troops landing in Morocco and Algeria and driving east to trap Rommel's Panzerarmee Afrika, which was retreating from Montgomery's 8th Army after El alamein. But German reinforcements to Tunisia, coupled with Rommel's [largely untouched] retreat and juncture with the new troops [5th Panzer Army], prevented the quick victory anticipated, and a string of German victories, culminating in Kasserine Pass made the cost of 'Torch' higher than it might have been. Yet by Spring of 1943, the Allies bagged more Axis prisoners in Tunisia than the Russians took at Stalingrad.

The question was what next. George Marshall and the U.S. generals wanted to invade France. but Churchill, enamored of the 'soft belly of Europe', argued that with all the Allied troops in north Africa, Sicily was a good target. FDR bought it, and Husky was planned. And that began the Patton-Montgomery rivalry.

In 1943, Patton was the senior field commander in the theater. Bradley worked for HIM. But Patton would share the 'honors' in Sicily [he commanded Seventh Army] with Monty and the 8th. And Monty, who didn't like the original invasion plan, rewrote it, giving 8th Army the major role [and best beaches and shortest route to Sicily's capitol, Messina], and leaving Patton as a flank guard on his left. Needless to say, George wasn't happy.

He was even less happy when Montgomery demanded [and got] from Eisenhower, what was to be Patton's major supply road up the island. both Patton and Bradley were livid, especially since 8th Army's progress was, to put it charitably, measured. Not only were the Brits engaged with some of the better German units, they were fighting their way northward around Mt. Aetna. And the Americans, shuttled further left, had a bad supply problem [roads], and were being ravaged by malaria.

So Patton, being Patton, cut loose, and drove northwest to capture Palermo. He then swung east and headed along Sicily's north coast toward Messina. And capturing Messina ahead of Monty became an obsession to Patton, an obsession that led him to undertake operations [amphibious landings, etc.], that cost his troops dead and wounded that might not have been necessary [In Patton's defense, the lack of pressure from 8th Army, and Patton's slowed progress allowed the Germans to evacuate almost their entire force, AND their equipment to mainland Italy.

But on 17 AUG 1943, when advance units of 8th Army reached Messina, an honor guard from Seventh Army was there to greet them. Patton had beaten Montgomery to the city by a few hours.

The results of all this were not clear at the time, but the ramifications were long lasting. A mutual dislike between Patton and Montgomery was evident. One between Monty and Bradley was not. Montgomery again promised much, but delivered little, being slow to attain HIS objective, Messina, and allowing major German armored formations to escape. And there was trhe false reporting tio higher HQ that became a hallmark of Monty in France and Belgium in 1944. Patton began to display the singleminded ruthlessness that when uncoupled from sound strategic or tactical reasons [think Himmelburg] darkened his record [As some of troops would declaim "Our blood. Our guts"].

Patton was removed from command over the slapping incident [the Germans couldn't believe it]. He was left on the shelf until Normandy, when he commanded Third Army - UNDER Bradley. He proved to be the greatest Allied field commander in Europe.

And Churchill won one last round when he persuaded FDR to invade Italy. That campaign lasted two years. 

He had decided the insult could not go unanswered. When he had ridden west in 1220 to make war on the Khwaresm Empire, Genghis Khan [Chinggis Quan] had called on his vassals and allies to furnish troops for the campaign. The Uighers and Oriyats complied. The Tangut state of Xia Xia, also known as Kara Khitai did not. To add insult to injury, the rejection of the Khan's  request was couched in highly insulting terms. with bigger fish to fry, Genghis Khan rode west. But he did not forget.

And with Khwaresm broken and destroyed, the Khan had time to ruminate over Xia Xia's refusal. So, in 1226, he gathered his army yet again, and turned his sights on Xia Xia. The results were almost foreordained. The Mongol tumans rode roughshod over the enemy army, and Xia xia, being a more sedentary society, retreated into its cities once the army was routed in the field.

But all was not well with the Mongols. Genghis Khan had fallen from a horse during a great hunt before the campaign had started. He most probably had suffered internal injuries that festered. And in 1227, in his royal Ger in his field camp, he was dying. And he knew it. He was in his mid to later sixties, an old age for a Mongol who had lived the hard life he had. But he had already set up the succession, with the Supreme Khanship going to his third son Uggedai, and he had already put the final plans for Xia Xia into motion.

The ruler of Xia Xia was in the Mongol camp, seeking an audience [most probably to surrender]. Genghis ordered a subterfuge, keeping him away from the royal Ger until Genghis had died, while not telling him of the Khan's illness. And Temujin, Genghis Khan issued three final orders. First, upon his own death, the royal family of Xia xia was to be killed. Second, Xia Xia was to be turned to ash. No surrender, no terms. It was to disappear. Third, Genghis Khan ordered that his body be returned to his homeland for secret burial.

The Khan's wishes were carried out. As to the first, the Xia xia royal family never left the camp. As to the second, Genghis' three remaining sons [Chagatai, Uggedai, Tolui] and the redoubtable Subedei, swept Xia Xia from the map in a storm of arrows and fire.

And as to the third, Genghis' body was taken north by an honor guard of Mongol cavalry. They slew every passerby who saw the procession. According to the "Secret History", Genghis was buried in the Mongol heartland, with horses, grave goods and slaves to see him into the next life. Supposedly he was buried in a crevasse, a Mongol clan was exempted from military duty to guard the site, and a forest was planted to hide the location.

But is that what happened? The location of Genghis' burial site has never been found, nor has it been revealed by the Mongols. According to the latest theories, Genghis Khan's body may never have reached the Kurelen and Ordos river, let alone Burkhan Kaldun. The reasoning goes that the Khan, having died in August, well south of the Gobi Desert, would have been in a state of extreme decomposition very rapidly, and would not have survived into Mongolia. The discovery of a grave in the Ordos Loop in china may support the theory. Carbon dating shows the male skeleton and grave goods dates from the thirteenth century. and the man,, past middle age [for the time] is surrounded by dead horse.

But no firm conclusion has been reached, and the search for the great Khan's grave continues to fascinate and form the background to a cottage industry of amateur and professional archaeologists.

What is known, is that at this point Genghis' Khan's grave and remains have not been conclusively found. And that he died on this date in 1227.

Mr baseball to me was the late Tony Gwynn. He played with the Padres his whole career. Still get sad thinking he is gone. Loved his laugh. He used to do Padre broadcasts on Channel 4 Padres. Used to watch all the time when I lived in San Diego.

I have other players that I really liked, but was able to go to home games and see him play for many years.

I remember that day Evils died. I just didn't understand all the hype. Now as I age I see why. Love his songs now. He was another entertainer that served this country. Now most of them want it destroyed. How times have changed... :'(

For Apples:

At the close of the Civil War, the United states Army, largely composed of volunteer regiments was largely demobilized, in part because the Volunteers did not want to stay in service [see George Armstrong Custer's problems with his cavalry Division in Texas]. And so the Army was restructured.

One of the issues facing the leadership of the Army was black troops. Blacks had served with distinction in the Civil War. Although largely limited to menial duties, they had fought well when given the chance. For many ex-slaves, the military offered a respectable career. For the Army, they offered motivated, disciplined troops. And for the Republican Congress, which had many abolitionists, denying Blacks a chance to serve was anathema.

And so when the Army was re-formed, there were two Black infantry regiments [24th and 25th], and two black cavalry regiments [9th and 10th] on the TO&E, staffed with white officers. Of the Black regiments, the two that gained the most fame were the 9th and 10th Cavalry, the latter commanded by Col. Benjamin Grierson of Newton Station fame [Grierson was a committed supporter of both abolition and blacks in the military]. Grierson volunteered for the assignment. Other officers, notably Custer turned down command of black troops, even though it meant his rank post war was reduced to Lieutenant Colonel, instead of Colonel, and his assignment was as Executive Officer of a Cavalry regiment, instead of its commander.

The black troops were, as before, largely given menial jobs, at least the infantry was. They spent long periods of time road building, putting up installations, etc. But when allowed to soldier, they proved up to the task. That truth was more so for the Cavalry. The sobriquet "Buffalo Soldiers was allegedly bestowed upon them by the Indians. I have seen the tribe responsible named as Comanche, Kiowa, Cheyenne or others. But regardless of where the name came from, it stuck.

Perhaps the most memorable contribution made by Buffalo Soldiers during the Indian Wars was the 10th's contribution to defeating Victorio and his Chihenne Apaches. Victorio was probably the ablest tactician in all Apacheria. And when he finally went to war, he ran circles around the U.S. Army.

Victorio played the border between the U.S. and Mexico like a violin. He fought from ambush. And when he did, he always had a back way out. and when he wasn't ambushing he was raiding. and when he wasn't raiding, he nipped over the border for more of the same in Mexico.

It was Grierson who realized one of the keys to defeating Victorio was to deny him water, and since Grierson's bailiwick was western Texas, water was finite, both in availability and location.

Twice Grierson did battle with the Apache over water. the first time he got a draw [but denied the Indians the water]. The second time, he drove them off with heavy losses. Victorio was forced back over the border into Mexico, where he was killed in battle by the Mexicans at Tres Castillos.

By now, assignment to a black regiment of a white officer was not seen as a negative. The troops were disciplined, professional and motivated. The problems, often endemic in white regiments, such as desertion were almost non-existent. One officer who joined and stayed with Black cavalry was John Pershing. He spent such a long time with them, he was called "Black Jack" by fellow white officers. And it was not meant as a compliment.

Pershing and the Buffalo soldiers fought in the Spanish-American war, and subsequently, the Philippine Insurrection. They were at San Juan Hill, where they performed exceptionally well, as well as Pershing's Mexican Expedition. They served in WW I, but were restricted to rear duties or service with the French Army.

The Buffalo Soldiers fought in both WW II and Korea, but the units had different designations, and with President Truman's desegregation of the Army, the units existed for a while but lost their racial composition.

A monument to the Buffalo soldiers can be found at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, the former training center back in the day for horse cavalry.

So do we tear down the monument to the Buffalo Soldiers because it is reminiscent of segregation in the Army?  I hope not!  This anarchy either ends soon, or America could well be destroyed as the country we once know. 

Remembering every facet of history is essential to moving forward as a nation.  To destroy our statues will set this country back and cause permanent damage to freedom in this country.

If there is one statue that should come down, it is the one of Lenin in Seattle.  This statue ended in America because it was removed from where it was installed initially.  Lenin was a monster who murdered over 10 million of his own people.  There should be no place for this monster, even on private land.

If someone asked what the U.S. military's greatest defeat at the hands of American Indians, many would say Custer's Last Stand. They would be wrong.

In the post Revolutionary War era, all eyes were on the Ohio frontier, which included Ohio, Illinois, and Indiana, as well as Kentucky. the area was home to a variety of Indian tribes and bands, the Pottowamani, the Sac, Fox, Delaware, Mingo [transplanted Iroquois sent to oversee thepeoples considered by the Iroquois to be vassals, the Miami, and above all, the Shawnee.

The Shawnee had been original occupants of the territory long before the Revolution. Defeated in war by the Iroquois, they had disappeared into the west and southwest. but they had returned to live in the Ohio territory, to live as "nephews" of the Iroquois.

One of the provisions of the Jay Treaty was that the British were to withdraw their forts from the old northwest territory [such as Ft. Detroit] and cease trying influence the Indians. The British did neither. Additionally, Iroquois efforts to regain their own influence over the Ohio Indians faltered badly, since the Iroquois, most of whom had sided with the British in the Revolution had been hammered and driven into Canadian exile. and nature abhors a vacuum.

That vacuum was filled by an expanding Indian alliance led by the Shawnee [Blue Jacket], the Miami [Little Turtle],and the Delaware. It included warriors, and insome cases whole tribes from the above lists.

The alliance had two basicgoals: end Iroquois interference in what the Ohio Indians saw as their affairs, and to limit U.S. expansion past the line proposed and ordered by the British before the war [and to take back Kentucky.

Over a period of time, councils with American emissaries were held, limited raiding took place along the frontier, and both sides readied for war [the Indians being encouraged by, and armed ,in part,by the British].

Within the United States, the military prepared for combat the same old way, i.e., mobilizing voluntary militia formations and sending them to fight under both volunteer and Revolutionary War officers.

The U.S's first attempt in 1790, under Josiah Harmer, ended in failure, when the Indians using sophisticated operational strategies [cutting off supplies],forced Harmer to retire.

The second attempt, led by Gen. Arthur St.Clair,ended in disaster. Attacked on three sides by  Indians led by blue Jacket and Little Turtle, Harmer's force was defeated, routed, and suffered the worst defeat at arms of any U.S. military force under arms by American Indians in U.S. history - with over 600 dead, and an army devolved into a mob fleeing the field.

When President Washington proposedagain, as he had before the St. Clair expedition, that a professional force be put together to attack the Indians, the congressional proponents of a militia based military were forced to vote for, inasmuch as militia forces had failed not once, but twice.

Washington's choice of commander for the operation was inspired. MG Anthony "Mad Anthony" Wayne had 'made his bones' in the Revolution, capturing Stony Point in an operation so chancy, he was thought mad. And after the Revoultion, Wayne had been involved in treay discussions with several tribes of Indians. He was also known as a strict disciplinarian who trained his troops to a high degree of efficiency.

Within two years of the St. Clair debacle, Wayne was ready. He marched some 3,000 men into the heart of Miami territory, stopping along the way to foertify supply posts. He reached the abandoned Miami capitol and made contact at a place called Fallen timbers [named for the heavy blowdown from a much earlier storm], near modern Toledo, Ohio.

Some of the Indians jumped the gun, and attacked, forcing other bands to support them. Wayne not only held them, but enveloped their right and attacked the center. A bayonet charge decided the issue. the Indians were routed. To add to their defeat was their surprise, when they were faced with the barred doors of a British fort they fled to initially, and denied entrance; before fleeing further away.

Wayne met the defeated Indians in dribs and drabs, the last to come in being Little Turtle. At the treaty of Grenville, the Indians gave up all claim to Kentucky, and were pushed further west. The British finally abandoned their old northwest territory forts. For all extents and purposes, the Ohio Valley, indeed the Old Northwest Territory was now American.

[Disclaimer: Although popular history sets the Plinian eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. on August 24-25 79 A.D., more current archaeological research has challenged that date. Studies of food remains found in Pompey, specifically dates and other fruits and nuts, which would not have been harvested until late September or in October militate for an eruption date in mid to late Autumn. But since the debate has not settled on when the eruption took place, I have gone with the commonly accepted date of the explosion].

The first rumblings of trouble occurred in 62 A.D., when a major earthquake severely damaged the Roman city of Pompeii. A city of some 20,000, and a major import-export terminus for Rome and Naples, its citizens had no clue as to what caused the earthquake, or what it portended, since they did not realize they were living in the shadow of mainland Europe's last active volcano. But, to their sorrow they would learn.

In early August, the natives of Pompeii, and nearby Herculaneum [a vacation site for Rome's elite]began to feel a series of minor quakes. None had the force of the 62 A.D. quake, but they still put Pompeii's citizens on edge, since they were still repairing damage from the earlier earthquake. And the Pompeiians had reason for concern. Vesuvius was clearing his throat. Some took the hint and left, as many more had in 62. But many stayed.

The eruption started with a deafening bang sometime around noon. The top of the mountain literally blew off, sending an ash column some twelve miles high in the sky. And for the rest of the afternoon, and into the evening, ash rained down on Pompeii, increasing in volume and in the size and weight of the individual pieces of pumice eventually a 70' layer of ash would cover Pompeii]. The worst was yet to come.

Sometime in the early hours of the next day, the mountain roared again, and a combination of ash and superheated gasses, called a pyroclastic flow, with heat exceeding 1,000 degrees, began to flow down the slope of the mountain at speeds of 100 mph, plus or minus. It hit Pompeii like a freight train, instantly killing anyone it touched. Shortly thereafter a second flow struck Herculaneum, which had escaped most of the ash due to wind direction, wiping out the town, and burying it as well.

Vesuvius ash cloud collapsed the next morning, and yet another flow [there may have been as many as five, and there were at least three], roared down the slope and out onto the Bay of Naples [this was recorded, as was much of we know about the eruption by Pliny the Younger. For years scientists refused to accept this observation because of the weight of the stone on water, until the saw the same phenomenon on the island of Monserrat].

Pliny's uncle, the famed naturalist and commander of the Roman fleet at Naples had crossed the bay to observe the eruption and aid people fleeing the volcano, got to close [and it wasn't that close] to Pompeii on the beach, and was killed by poisonous gasses accompanying the eruption.

Pompeii and Herculaneum were forgotten. Vesuvius lost maybe a third of her mass by the time the eruption ended on that second day. And so it stood until the 18th century when engineers, working on a pipeline broke through from above and found the ruins of Pompeii [Herculaneum was discovered later]. And despite looting over the next century, archaeology opened up the city to modern visitors. And the finds were spectacular. there were the famous figures of the dead created by ash surrounding the bodies and petrifying. there were mosaics and frescos on the buildings. More importantly, there was evidence on how the Romans lived in the first century A.D., a bakery, a Roman 'fast food' stand, baths, etc. And then Herculaneum gave archaeologists something beyond price, skeletons. Remains of people who had hidden in boat storage areas under the then sea wall, and who had been walled in by the pyroclastic flows , but unburnt. the find was significant because in the first century, A.D., the Romans still cremated their dead. the skeletal remains allowed scientists to study Romans for the frist time.

Subsequently skeletons were discovered in Pompeii, 54 of them, huddled in a barrel vaulted cellar that was sealed in by ash. Among the finds in the cellar that may change our understanding of history are the skeletons of twin young women, apparently slaves, because their remains show signs of syphilis, which would set the accepted theory that syphilis was brought back from the new world by Columbus on its ear.

Pompeii today is one of Italy's greatest tourist attractions [Herculaneum less so]. One can walk its streets and see vivid reminders of the people who lived there, and the approximately 2,000  who died there when Vesuvius erupted in August 79 AD [or didn't].

Vesuvius is still active [the last eruption took place in 1944], and all indications are the mountain will erupt again. Except this time, the destruction and death toll will be much higher, because many more people now live in close proximity to the mountain then did in 79 A.D.

1346 - The Battle of Crecy:

From William the conqueror on, the Norman Kings of England were Kings IN England. But in France, where the family came from, they were Dukes, AND vassals of the King of France. And through a very successful series of marriages, they held more French land than the king did. Result? The hundred Years War.

In 1346, Edward III of England launched an attack/raid from the Ducal holdings to the east/northeast, with some 12,000 men. He was met by King Louis, his allies and some 14,000 troops, comprised mainly of mounted knights and mercenary Genoese crossbowmen.

At the time of Crecy, European warfare was dominated by heavy cavalry, the chivalry of Europe. that had been the case since Adrianople, and Louis had no reason to think that would change. He should have.

The battle opened, interestingly enough, with the advance of the Genoese crossbowmen, apparently with the intent of 'softening up' the English for the usual heavy cavalry charge.

the crossbow was a  major weapon in the Middle Ages. It was easy to learn, did not take years of training, and within its range was lethal to armored personnel. It normally required a crew of two, the bowman, and a shield bearer to protect him. And the Genoese were some of the best crossbowmen in the world. But it had a major weakness - rate of fire. A crossbow required that the string be cranked back into firing position for every shot. the rate of fire was exceptionally slow

Unfortunately, the English force was 'heavy' in yeomen Longbow men, very heavy.

The English Kings had first run up against the Longbow in Wales. Some 6' long, typically made of yew, the longbow took years to master. But it was a formidable weapon [inferior only to the composite saddle bow] in the hands of an experienced bowman, and capable of a rate of fire measured in tens of shafts per minute. So England required all youths of the yeoman class to begin training on the longbow at an early age. and the result was that by adulthood, the bowmen had developed the strength, coordination and expertise with their weapon to be a lethal force on the battlefield [they carried several types of arrowhead, including one to penetrate, at close enough range, plate armor and chain mail]. And because of the training program, England had a large force of very competent archers.

The Genoese were taken under fire at a range they could not respond to. After suffering a large number of casualties, they withdrew, and the Knights fighting for France charged. It was a bloodbath. The arrow storm dropped horses and knights in droves. And while the King of France escaped with a wound, most of his allies were killed [those unhorsed were often killed by a longbow man armed with a hatchet or stiletto].

Crecy was one of three great longbow victories in the Hundred Years War [the others were Poitiers and Agincourt, where the Knights attacked on foot, and suffered the same result]. And it was the battle that re-established infantry as the dominant branch of land warfare, for the first time since the Legions of Rome.


1914-Tannenburg:

The last words Alfred Von Schlieffen, the former Chief of the German General Staff allegedly made on his death bed to the family clustered around him was "Make only the right wing strong!", a reference to his life's work, the German plan for war with France, with a hook through neutral Belgium, and a scythe like move first west, then south, and then turning behind Paris and heading east.

But Germany was not going to fight just France. If war came, she was going to potentially also face France's allies, Imperial Russia and Great Britain. So contingency plans were made, based on predicted troop mobilizations of not only the German Army, but the armies of France, and Russia. And those plans were fairly straight forward. Germany would defend and delay in the East, when the Russians eventually showed up, while launching the Schlieffen offensive in the West. But what looks good on paper doesn't always translate to good on the ground.

When WW I started, the chief of the German general staff was Moltke the Younger. But he was no chip off Moltke the Elder. He was more like sawdust. Lacking confidence, easily alarmed, he wasn't the man for the job. Neither was the commander of the German 8th Army in the East, Von Prittwitz, whose idea of 'delay and defend' was to fall back to the Vistula [Poland was divided into three parts, and had been since the early 1790s, between Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary].

And then there were the Russians. Apparently nobody told them their mobilization should be slow. In response for calls for help from the French, the Czar sent two armies, the 1st under Rennenkampf and the 2d, under Samsonov to invade East Prussia, the home of the Junkers, and birthplace of the Hohenzollern dynasty. And they did it much earlier than expected.

Rennenkampf scored an early victory, but the Operations officer of 8th Army, Col. Max Hoffmann had already begun pulling together a plan to defeat  Samsonov, moving up to join Rennekampf. Using the railroad system and called up reserve units [which were trained to a level almost comparable with the regulars, Hoffmann began to surround Samsonov on three sides. He was also aided by the  geography. the two Russian armies were separated by the Masurian Lakes, and unable to join. Additionally, Samsonov and Rennenkapf loathed each other, and kept communications to a minimum [and intercepted messages, in clear, told the Germans Samsonov's plans. It was a situation ripe for the picking. And Moltke, relieving Von Prittwitz, brought in a command team that would pick the Russians clean, Generals Paul von Hindenburg [off the retired list], and Erich Ludendorff, the hero of the siege of Liege.

Samsonov continued moving, deeper into the German ambush. When the Germans attacked, he compounded that error by continually underestimating the size of the force he was fighting, and failing to call on Rennenkampf for aid [which considering the terrain was doubtful], although he did ask higher headquarters to order Rennenkampf to help him. And after three days, Samsonov walked away from his headquarters group [his army had been destroyed] into the forest and shot himself.

Rennenkampf, ably screened and delayed by German cavalry never got closer to the battle than some 40 plus miles as the crow flies.

Tannenburg was one of the great victories of World War I. It was decisive [an entire Russian Army was taken out of the order of battle], and it stabilized the Eastern Front, allowing the Germans to concentrate on France.

But the Russian defeat had not been in vain. Moltke had pulled two Corps out of the wheeling line, and sent them East [they arrived too late for the battle], and as the Germans wheeled, a gap developed in their line between the 1st and 2d Armies, a gap exploited in French and British counterattacks that stopped the Germans before they reached Paris, i.e. the "Miracle of the Marne". the Germans were stopped, rolled back on the right, and the Western Front became a race to flank up to the Channel, and entrench when flanking failed. So in a sense, the Russian defeat at Tannenburg was an indirect cause of the eventual Allied vicory in WW I [by that time, Russia had been knocked out of the war].

The sound of the explosion was heard over 2,000 miles away. The ash sent into the stratosphere produced vivid sunsets in England in 1888. the island of Krakatau [Krakatoa] in the Sunda Strait in the Dutch East Indies [Indonesia] disappeared. And 36,000 people died.


Krakatau was an uninhabited island in the Sunda Strait between Java and Sumatra, with forests, wildlife, and three volcano cones. In May, 1883, they showed signs of life. On August 26th and 27th, they came to life with a vengeance. in that two day period, the island blew itself apart, first sending out pyroclastic flows, and then on the 27th, tsunamis as high as 120' above sea level. Whole towns and villages were destroyed. Lighthouses were swept from their bases. A Dutch armored warship was swept over a mile inland. And the sound of the explosion [the loudest in recorded history, traveled well over 2,000 miles. But the extent of the catastrophe, because of its location, was unknown for weeks, if not months.

In 1929 [I believe], fishermen fishing the spot where Krakatau had been, witnessed the sea boiling, and then exploding. The volcano rising from the sea was called "Anak Krakatau" ["Son of Krakatau]. One of the world's most active volcanoes, it is now some 2,000 feet tall. And when, not if, it blows, a catastrophe that will dwarf 1883 will occur.

Reinhard Tristan Eugen Heydrich was born in 1904 in Halle, Germany. His father had been an opera singer, and ran, along with his mother a very successful music conservatory. The family was upper middle class, and politically conservative.

Heydrich was a member of the Freikorps in the aftermath of world War I, and joined the Schutz und Trutzbund after his service.

Heydrich grew up in a musical milieu, and played the violin at near concert levels. He also excelled at fencing and other sports, and determined on a naval career, instead of following in his father's footsteps. Heydrich became a signals officer on the battleship SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN. It was there he first met  [later Admiral] Wilhelm Canaris, who would go from mentor to intelligence collaborator to rival to enemy.

The course of Heydrich's life [and the world] were changed in 1931. Heydrich, a notorious womanizer became engaged to two women, the one he eventually married, Lina von Osten, and the daughter of someone with a great deal of influence in the German Navy. when Heydrich refused to break off his engagement with von Osten, the second woman had a nervous breakdown. the enraged father went to Admiral Raeder, who ordered a Court of Inquiry. Heydrich so badly impressed the Court that they recommended, and Raeder cashiered Heydrich.

Now with a wife, and no job prospects in Germany, Heydrich was at a loss for what to do. Enter Heinrich Himmler, Reichsfuehrer SS.

Himmler was looking to set up his own intelligence service [almost every branch of the Nazi Party had one. And he was looking for someone to lead it. At the same time, Frau Heydrich was urging her husband to consider Party work. And Heydrich's family had a friend who held high rank in the SS. An interview was arranged.

Heydrich ascertained fairly early in the interview that Himmler had mistaken his signals background as intelligence work. Nevertheless, Heydrich was able, in 20 minutes to cobble together an outline for an SS Security service [the SICHERHEITSDIENST or SD] that satifed Himmler. Heydrich was hired, and within a year was an SS Standartenfuehrer, and head of the SD, which was made, on Hitler's order, the sole party intelligence organization.

Heydrich was one of the main cogs in the plot to topple the SA on the Night of the Long Knives. By now [1934] Himmler had taken command of all of the police offices in Germany, and Heydrich had gone along as number 2, and usually, as commander of each Police force's political police. And that included Goering's Gestapo.

Himmler and Goering had a common goal in ridding the Reich of Ernst Roehm and the rest of the SA leadership. The SA was the last [and largest] group in the Party calling for a 'second' socialist revolution. And they made no bones about their plans to take over the German Army. The Army wanted their heads. Goering wanted their heads. Himmler wanted their heads. And somewhere aslong the way, Hitler wanted their heads too [the price for loyalty from the army].

Heydrich gathered, and when necessary falsified, evidence of an SA coup. He also prepared execution lists [which included not only SA leaders, but party rivals, political rivals, and others for whom the Nazi leadership had grudges, and sent out the 'hit squads' in Berlin. And by the time the "Night of the Long Knives" was over, not only Roehm and many of the SA had been killed, but so had the former Chancellor [Gen. Von Schleicher], former Nazi Leader of Northern Germany [ Gregor Strasser], former governor of Bavaria [Gustav von Karr [who stopped the 1923 putsch], and at least one hundred others.

Heydrich was busy in the '30s, with some successes and at least one spectacular failure. The successes included 'Salon Kitty', an SD run brothel, wired for sound and guaranteed to reveal all sorts of interesting intelligence, since the clientel was comprised of diplomats and Nazi functionaries; and a series of forged documents passed, via Czechoslovakia to the Soviet Union, intimating collusion between Russian generals and the Nazis [which MAY have contributed to the Soviet purge of the Red Army High Command].

But Heydrich bungled badly in the matter of Col. Gen.Fritsch, the commander of the German Army. Heydrich's Gestapo [as of 1936, Heydrich commanded the SICHERHEITSPOLIZEI, an amalgam of the Gestapo, Kriminalpolitzei, and the SD] put together a dossier claiming Fritsch was a pracaticing homosexual [illegal in Germany since the Weimar Republic]. By the time the smoke cleared, Fritsch was exonerated by a Court of honor presided over by Goering, no less, when it became apparent that a different von Frisch [a Captain] was the homosexual in question.

But Heydrich rebounded in spectacular fashion. With the Anschluss of  Austria, Heydrich created two entities that served him well. the first, and more benign, but not by much, was the Central Office for Jewish Emigration, which put all the agencies necessary to process Jewish emigrants out of Austria in one building, streamlining the then official policy of forcing the Jews out of Europe expeditiously.

Heydrich's second, and far more sinister creation were the EINSATZGRUPPEN and EINSATZKOMMANDOS, task forces of security police, and other SS security forces for the establishment of control and terror. The Einsatzgruppen would have a far longer, bloodier and meaningful place in Nazi history that the Central Office.

In 1938 and 1939, the Einsatzgruppen were also sent into Czechoslavakia, both after the Munich Pact, and after the annexation of the rest of the country.

As war loomed, Hitler looked for a pretext [to avoid the 'war guilt' clause of the Versailles Treaty]. And Heydrich gave it to him. Heydrich had the SD fakle a Polish attack on the Gleiwitz radio station, complete with on air shots fired and Polish cursing. A concentration camp inmate, murdered by the Germans was left out front in a Polish uniform, supplied by Admiral Canaris.

And with the invasion of Poland, Heydrich's gloves [if they were ever on] came off. A total of five Einsatzgruppen were sent into Poland, with orders to kill the Polish ruling class, the clergy, any potential leadership left, and, of course, the Jews. Heydrich's men were so ruthless, the military governor wrote a scathing report to Hitler, which Hitler ignored, then scaked the military governor, and turned Poland over to German civil rule.

Heydrich was circumscribed in 1940 by both the German Army, and Hitler himself. No Einsatzgruppen were allowed into western Europe. It was to be a civilized war. And the Gestapo was not allowed to set up shop in Paris, nor anywhere else under German military government. Poland was biting Heydrich's buttocks.

So Heydrich took time to fly fighter planes for the Luftwaffe [he was a major]. Heydrich flew Me 110s in Norway, and Me 109s over the Channel [He would be shot down over Russia, and be forbidden to fly after his return to German lines, by which time he had flown over 100 missions]. But in 1941, Heydrich took stage, front and center in two interrelated areas, the invasion of the Soviet Union, and the Holocaust.

By 1941, with the anticipated addition of several million Russian Jews to their area of control, the German policy on the 'Jewish Question' hardened. So when, in 1941, Heydrich sent four Einsatzgruppen into Russia, they were tasked with killing Communist apparatchiks, Red Army Commissars, and all the Jewish men they came across [in August Himmler added Jewish women and children to the execution lists. And by June, 1942, the SS had killed over a million Russian, Baltic, and Ukrainian Jews.

But Heydrich anticipated that would not be enough. In July, 1931, he got a letter from Goering to come up with the final solution of the Jewish problem. Always known for anticipated Hitler and Himmler's wishes, Heydrich began planning the industrial scale murder of those the Reich found racially unacceptable.

He announced his plans on January 20th, 1942 at the Wannsee Conference. Heydrich brought together officials from all spheres of the German government. He explained that they would be assisting in the coordination of what was an SS operation, the transportation east, and death [by either overwork or murder] of the Jews of Europe.

Heydrich balanced this job with his others, including not only his police duties, but also his new appointment as Reichsprotektor of Bohemia-Moravia [Czechoslavakia]. Heydrich brought a combination of carrot and stick to Prague, although there was more of the latter than the former, leading to his newest sobriquet "The Butcher of Prague", which followed his others "The Young God of Death", "The Blonde Beast", and "Hitler's Hangman", to name a few.

On May 27th, 1942, an attempt was made on Heydrich's life with a grenade. It succeeded in large part because of his hubris. He died of secondary infection  on June 9th. His funeral provided his last nickname, bestowed on him by hitler himself, the "Man with the Iron Heart".

Reinhard Heydrich was one of the most brutal and evil men of the 20th century. He was the executor responsible for putting Nazi wishes into deeds. He was responsible for millions of deaths. Had he survived the war, he would have surely been hanged at Nuremburg. 

Thank you! Sorry it took so long for me to read this...I just haven't been online much these past few weeks. Thank you again!

Bobby Bird statue too. It needs to go. I read today they have banned the movie Gone With The Wind someplace. I was kidding one day saying they will ban that movie. I guess next up will be the Turner Classic Movie channel. This sh1t must stop now!!!!

This subject fascinates my husband. Been able to watch TV shows on it.

They were the most powerful Indian Confederacy on the Continent. For well over a century they had dominated northern New York, Pennsylvania and the Ohio country. Composed of five tribes [Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, They later added a sixth that migrated from the Carolinas, the Tuscaroras], their lands stretched across the Mohawk Valley to the Great Lakes. They acted as intermediaries between the English colonists and other tribes, as well as middle men for the fur trade [They annihilated the Erie Indians in a war over the beaver trade]. Their relations with the French waxed and waned, inasmuch as the French were allied with their traditional enemies, the Algonquin and the Huron, although they never fully broke with the French, finding them a useful counterweight in their negotiations with the British.

The Iroquois allied with the British and the Colonists in the French and Indian War, and the British appointed a VERY able Indian agent to deal with them, Sir William Johnson, who lived among them in the Mohawk Valley, and 'married' one of them, Molly Brant.

Success in the French and Indian War was a two edged sword for the Iroquois. It gained them prestige, gifts and the favor of the English in the short term. but in the long term, it removed that counterweight so useful in Iroquois diplomacy, the French.

Still, [it appeared to the Iroquois] life continued to be good. And then came the American Revolution.

Both sides wooed the Confederacy to side with them. At first, the Iroquois tried to stay neutral, because the Confederacy itself was split. The Oneidas and Tuscaroras, under the influence of American preachers, leaned toward the Americans. The Seneca and Mohawk leaned strongly toward the British. the Cayuga, and Onondaga less so. But Molly Brant's brother, Joseph, who had been educated in the white Men's schools, been to Britain, where he visited the King and been given a British Army commission, became a leading proponent of war as a British ally. He carried the day, but split the Iroquois Confederacy [Seneca and Mohawk found themselves fighting Oneida at Oriskany].

In 1777 and 1778, Brant and his warriors, allied with Tory Rangers under Walter Butler and Guy Johnson brought fire and death to the Mohawk Valley as far east as Albany. By 1779, George Washington had had enough. He ordered Iroquoisa burned to the ground. and he sent Gen. John Sullivan to do the work.

Sullivan commanded an army that proceeded up the Susquehanna River into Iroquois lands from the southwest. At Chemung, Brant, a large war party and some British regulars and irregulars built some defenses and prepared to ambush the Americans. But the Colonials broke the defenses with artillery fire and then attacked, shattering the Royalist force. then, supported by a second column driving west, Sullivan proceeded to destroy over 40 Iroquois villages, burning their crops and longhouses, killing any livestock, and fighting any Indians that cared to engage them. they didn't.

With winter coming on, the Brant Iroquois were left destitute. Starving they were forced to retreat to the British forts near Buffalo. And eventually, as the United States tightened its grip, and won the war, they were forced to relocate to Canada, where they remain today.

How successful was Sullivan's campaign? The Mohawk Valley was pacified. The power and influence of the Iroquois was broken forever. And George Washington is still known by them as "Town Burner".

On August 31, 1888, a prostitute named Mary Ann "Polly" Nichols is found murdered in Buck's Row, Whitechapel, East London. Her throat had been slit, and the body suffered several stab wounds. Her killer would come down to us through history as "Jack the Ripper", the first serial killer of the modern age.

Nichols would be followed by four more women, Annie chapman [September 8th], Elizabeth 'Long Liz' Stride and Catherine Eddowes, both on September 30th [the 'double event'], and Mary Jane Kelly [November 9th, and the only one of the Ripper's victims to die indoors]. Each of the victims showed increasing signs of violence and mutilation as the killings went on, with Kelly being virtually butchered on the bed in her room [one of the first cases involving the taking of crime scene photos].

and after Kelly, the killings stopped.

The ripper has grown into a cottage industry, with dozens of books, magazines, movies and TV shows following the case. Suspects could fill a football stadium. And in 1888, to paraphrase one of those book titles, London walked in terror.

It was a battle of contradictions. One of Caesar's greatest generals, a leader of armies, sought to confront his enemies at sea. The fate of Rome was decided in Greece [and later Egypt]. And the result was the death of the already moribund Roman Republic, and the beginning of what would be the Roman Empire. By the conclusion of the battle of Philippi and its follow up, the two leading lights behind Caesar's assassination were dead, with the rest to soon follow [if they hadn't preceded them]. And the second triumvirate [Octavian, Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus] became, for all extents and purposes, a two horse team, Octavian and Antony [Lepidus being shoved to the periphery, and obscurity].

And at that point, the smart money of who would succeed Caesar was on Antony. A successful field commander, companion of Caesar, and accomplished orator, Antony seemed to shine in all those areas of society romans admired [although Octavian was also noted for his oratory]. And while Octavian took over the western half of the Empire as his fief, Antony took the East, which was where most of the wealth was, including the granaries of Egypt.

But then the wheels began to fall off Antony's chariot, so to speak. An invasion of Parthia [wrapping himself in Caesar's unfinished business] was a massive, and embarrassing failure, which dimmed the luster of Antony's military reputation [ a campaign in Armenia went better, but didn't register with the Roman populace as much as the Parthian fiasco did]. And then there was Cleopatra, the ancient world's welcome wagon. Summoned by Antony to answer charges she had aided his enemies, she pulled the same move she did with Caesar [without the rug], and just as successfully. Eventually she bore Antony a pair of twins, a son and a daughter.

All of this did not go down well in Rome, a society that looked down on involvements with foreigners. So Antony, to mend fences, returned to the Eternal City, and married Octavia, Octavian Caesar's sister, a model of roman decorum, and a much loved figure in the City.

It didn't last. Antony left her for the East and Cleopatra, where he participated in a triumph in Alexandria, riding on golden thrones with Cleopatra, and accompanied by her children, who were hailed as royalty. And then he gave Cleopatra Roman territory in the East. It was too much for the Romans. Already angered by the shameful treatment Antony had meted out to Octavia, outraged by both the implied 'royal' status Antony and his children had assumed [Caesar had been killed for fears of less], and stoked by the adroit propaganda of Octavian, Rome declared war - on Cleopatra, and de facto Antony [although Octavian was clever enough not to declare war on a fellow Roman - the Romans were sick of that].

Both sides prepared, with opponents of each joining the forces of the other [Caesar's favorite legion, the Xth joined Antony]. And almost by unspoken mutual agreement, the war would be fought outside Italy, in Greece.

Each side had certain advantages. Antony had his military skill and experience. He also had the wealth of Cleopatra, her fleet, and many of Rome's more experienced  legions at his disposal. He also had a superior staging and defensive position at Actium. the harbor was flanked by two peninsulas of land. And both were fortified. The legions on the peninsulas protected the harbor [and the fleet at anchor]. the fleet protected the bay, and in turn protected the rear of the fortifications, leaving Octavian facing attacking frontally, against fortifications on a narrow front, with both flanks open to naval units on either or both peninsulas [most likely the northern one, more easily approached by land], or engaging an enemy fleet protected on both flanks by ballistae and onagers.

Octavian , on the other hand, had the Caesar name,money, troops, the support of the Roman Republic, a fleet of his own, and an ace in the hole, one Marcus Agrippa. Agrippa had been a friend of Octavian for years, and had served with him on campaigns in Italy and Spain. Agrippa was one of the great, unsung geniuses of the roman Empire, both as a soldier, and administrator. And at Actium, he commanded the Roman fleet.

All might have gone well for Antony if he had waited Octavian out, and stood pat. He didn't. He sallied out of the harbor, into a well laid trap. At first it seemed he might succeed. his ships were doing well. But then Cleopatra, for reasons unknown, broke away from the battle, and sailed at speed, for Alexandria. Antony abandoned his fleet, his men, and any hope of victory and followed her. Both escaped. Antony's fleet wasn't so lucky.

What wasn't sunk, surrendered [Octavian had a victory monument centered around the ramming  prows of Antony's ships built]. and Antony's land forces, now cut off and surrounded, followed a week later.

Octavian caught up with Antony in Egypt within a year. Antony's troops deserted. Believing Cleopatra dead the rumor was false], Antony attempted suicide. He died in her arms in the crypt she was hiding in. Cleopatra, having failed to pedal her by now well used wares on Octavian, and loath to be the centerpiece of his triumph, killed herself, supposedly with an asp. Her son by Caesar [allegedly] was killed on Octavian's orders. Her children by Antony were spared, and taken to Rome, where they were cared for by Octavia.

Rome was whole again. but it would never be the same. The Senate retained its form, but lost most of its power. Octavian, went through the motions of consulting them on the things they had decided in the past, but everyone was aware of where the power lay. Although he eschewed the title of 'king', and preferred to be referred to as 'primus inter pares', Octavian was THE power in Rome. And as Augustus, he was the first, and best of the Caesars [although several of the non-Julian Caesars came close]. Augustus ruled for over forty years. And by his death, there was no more Roman Republic, in form, or substance. His successors were all called "Caesar" which became shorthand for "Emperor". And variations of that title, "Kaiser", "Czar", lasted into the twentieth century.

He stands at the top of the list as "Most Prolific Killer" of the 20th Century. And unlike Hitler or Stalin, and much more like Pol Pot, the millions he killed were almost entirely his own people. His reign of terror lasted some five decades, and almost all his victims died to further his own warped platform, or to maintain him in power. He was Mao Zedung [or Mao Tse Tung], and China still lives in the shadow of his crimes.

Mao was born in 1893, the son of a well to do farmer [like Lenin, and Hitler, he was not a child of poverty]. But Mao refused to follow in his father's footsteps, preferring to read, and loaf about. But Mao's father sent him to school, and Mao became a librarian, and a Marxist.

Enrolled early in the communist Party [he was not a founder], Mao started his career as a writer, printer, and organizer for the Party, and enveigled his way into the local leadership. He soon began what would become his standard MO, disobeying directives that did not advance his interests, and scheming against others who stood in his way.

Mao wound up as commander of the nascent Red Army, but then marched it off from control of the local party. Recognized as a troublemaker, Mao wound up on the Long March by putting himself on the route to be taken. Claiming illness, Mao had himself and his books carried by porters [he also rode a horse, on the journey to Yenan. and once there, he began his merciless rise to the top, undermining comrades left [no pun intended] and right.

Mao had already shown a taste for sadism in the treatment of wealthier farmers by the troops under his command. At Yenan, he began requiring self criticism sessions for the cadres. And summary executions for many of them.

During WW II, Mao ostensibly allied with his enemy, Chiang Kai Shek against the Japanese. In reality, his troopsexpanded Red enclaves, and made unofficial truces and side deals with the invaders, while Chiang's troops did almost all of the fighting. And more and more people in the areas under Mao's control were killed.

With the end of the war, Mao squared off to fight Chiang. The area of operations was Manchuria, where the Soviet occupiers gave Mao vast caches of captured Japanese weapons. The battles were won by Peng Duhai and Lin Biao. the man who got the credit was Mao.

In 1949, Mao proclaimed the independence of Red China from the gates of Tianamen Square. By now, at least several million Chinese had been killed by the Communists.

And then, in the 1950s, Mao proclaimed his "Great Leap Forward", an economic program of such stupidity, it was a wonder no one raised objections. Mao decided he was going to surpass Great Britain in steel production in a short time. To do this, he ordered back yard smelters throughout China, where all matter of metal was melted down, including the woks the Chinese cooked on, and the implements they used to prepare their food. Unfortunately, Mao's steel was of such poor quality that it was useless. At the same time, to buy heavy machinery, Mao exported virtually all the foodstuffs, grain, etc. the peasants needed to live on. the result was a famine of biblical proportion, exascerbated by Mao's next brainstorm, digging canals and other water projects by hand [shades of the White Sea Canal]. And if one did not meet his quota, he wasn't fed.

By 1959, millions had died. It took a visit to their home villages by Peng Duhai and the President of the country, Liu Shou Chi, to convince the two that the Great Leap had to be stopped. and they did, at a politburo meeting. Mao was stopped, and stripped of much of his  autocratic power. He never forgot.

Mao struck back with the "Great Cultural Revolution, where he unleashed the youth of China on their elders. The short term results were chaos, killing and the deaths of both Peng and Liu [the latter in especially abominable conditions], and the return of Mao to power. And Mao clung to that power like a barnacle to a rock for the rewt of his life, although by the time of his death, much had been done to limit him. The long term result was the destruction of a whole generation.

First the Army reigned in the young red Guards Mao had unleashed. Then they, and the party under Deng Shou Ping began to ease away from Mao's beloved permanent revolution.

Mao died in 1976, having opened the way with the west [and denying Chou En Lai medical treatment for his cancer until it was too late to save Chou]. He was mourned as the father of his country's renaissance by millions of Chinese. And the government, involved in his crimes from Day 1 could not repudiate him without throwing themselves under the bus. the result is that Mao's portrait still hangs in Tianeman Square, and China still pays lip service to the 'Great Helmsman'.

Yet Mao is responsible from anywhere from 100 million to 200 million deaths of his countrymen. A butcher who wrote poetry, he should be despised, not honored, and remembered with revulsion.

The revulsion will come only once China is free.  Until that time, the people do not have the FREEDOM of thought, or the FREEDOM of action to arrive at the truth. 

It may well be true that his death toll was 100 to 200 million, but I consider it a smaller outcome when you consider the number eliminated as a percent of the population.  Stalin and Lenin murdered I believe somewhere in the neighborhood of 100 million Russians, with a population far smaller than China.  And even today, Stalin is still looked upon somewhat favorably.

He was in the same facility as Lenin, but Khrushchev had his body moved to where it lies now in the Kremlin wall.  Khrushchev knew all too well the genuine terror Stalin was while leader.  I dare say hardly a family in Russia was not adversely affected by the insanity of Joseph Stalin.

Stalin killed twice as many Russians compared to Hitler, and yet Russia still holds the victory over Hitler's Germany as one of their most important holidays.

It would be a pleasant notion to believe such men will no longer terrorize mankind, but I know better!

If you want to go by percentage, Pol Pot 'wins', hands down.

It was the longest running war in American history. Started in 1860 by Cochise and Mangas Coloradus, it had continued in the 1870s under Victorio, Chihauha, Cuchillo Negro, Nana, Juh, Mangas, and Goyalthe ["He Who Yawns"], known to use as Geronimo.

Geronimo was a Bedenoke Chiricahua Apache. He was not a chief. Most Apaches would have termed him a man of 'power', an almost mystical ability. In Geronimo's case, power meant invulnerability to enemy bullets.

Geronimo earned his Spanish nom de guerre in Mexico. His family, consisting of his wife and children, were slaughtered by Mexican troops while the men were trading in a nearby Mexican town. Geronimo's hatred of all things Mexican was born there, and even surpassed his antipathy t Americans.

Geronimo fought in the warbands of both Cochise and Mangas Coloradus. Yet when both died, Geronimo succeeded neither as a war chief. He di attach himself, however, to Cochise's Chohokens, and with the death of Cochise's successor, his oldest son, Tazai, and the ascension of the younger son, Naiche [or Nachez], Geronimo gained in influence, and began to lead, ostensibly under Naiche's leadership, a series of raids throughout eastern Arizona and western New Mexico. He also continued to raid into Mexico, often riding with Juh, chief of the Nedni apache, and a relative by marriage.

Geronimo followed in the footsteps of Victorio, and, when things got too hot in the States, used Mexico in the same way the Viet Cing used Cambodia, as a hideout. And like Cambodia, Geronimo's sanctuary was eventually ignored by the U.S. Army, which began cross border operations in the mid 1870s.

Geronimo's cross border problem was also compounded by two other factors: first,  many Chiricahua Apaches were tired of war [at one point Geronimo rode onto the reservation and kidnapped a band of former allies who had thrown in the towel], which resulted in many signing up with the army to scout against him [formerly, Western Apaches, like the White mountain and Tontos, enemies of the Chiricahua, had done the job]. And second, one of the great Indian fighters in the Army [the battle of the Rosebud aside] was his opponent.

George Crook, known to the Apache as 'Nantan Lupan' had spent a good deal of his career fighting them. But he took the time to study them, the terrain and the operational requirements before he acted. And in the case of the Apache, Crook determined that traveling 'light' was the only way to get the job done. Crook eschewed wagon convoys and heavily loaded troopers. Supplies were carried by mule train [coincidentally, the Apache loved to eat mule], troopers carried ammo, weapons and light equipment. Armed thusly, they could go where the Apache went, and did. And the pressure paid off. Crook brought Geronimo back once, but then Geronimo, and the pliable Naiche bolted the reservation. Crook caught him a second time, but allowed Geronimo to follow him in [they were in Mexico]. Geronimo [and Naiche] again bolted. And this time it cost Crook his job.

Crook was replaced by Nelson Miles, a man of vast combat experience against Indians [he had fought the Comanche, the Siux and Cheyenne and the Nez Perce]. Miles was also a man of vast ego. So he decided to fight the Apache the same way he fought the Sioux. He disbanded the Apache Scouts, and began conducting large scale patrols and sweeps. the result? Nothing. At one point, some 5,000 troops, 1/4 of the Army were chasing six Apaches led by Ulzana, Chihuaha's brother. Three hundred stolen horses, and three states later, Ulzana was back in Mexico. The Army had never even seen him.

Miles smartly, but quietly went back to Crook's playbook. He also sent Lt. Charles Gatewood and two Apache scouts into the Sierra Madres to make contact. Tthey found Geronimo, Naiche and their less than 20 followers. Geronimo wanted to kill them, but his followers, and particularly Naiche, refused to allow it.

Gatewood brought them bad news. The Chiricahua were being sent, en masse to Florida. Geronimo and his men  would be sent there as well, to prison for two years. The news broke the hostiles. They agreed to meet with Miles at Skeleton Canyon, across the border in the United States to surrender to miles. and for once Geronimo kept his word.

There is a famous picture of Geronimo and his band sitting on a railroad embankment that would carry them east into exile. Geronimo is there. So is  Naiche. And one of the women is Lozen, Victorio's sister. And so they went. But so did all the Apache Scouts who had served so honorably against their own people [including the two who had accompanied Gatewood], and all the others who had taken no part in the breakouts or depredations.

Geronimo  remained in the east until 1894, when with the survivors of the Apache exile, he was transferred to Ft. sill, and the Comanche-Kiowa reservation. He became a farmer, an ostensible Christian, and an entrepreneur [he sold autographed photos and crafts he made. He rode with Joseph of the Nez Perce and Quanah Parker in Teddy Roosevelt's inauguration parade.

the one thing that never abandoned Geronimo was his power. No enemy bullet ever struck him. One night in February, 1909, he fell off his horse [probably in a drunken stupor] and spent the night on the cold ground [or in a puddle], before being found. He contracted pneumonia and died [in an end strangely similar to Juh's]. He is buried at Fort sill. And despite never having been a chief, and never winning any major battles, he is probably the most well known Inidian in America.

1847:

    Jesse Woodson James is born in Missouri. The son of an itinerant preacher, who will desert the family, and die in the California gold fields, James grows up in a slave holding, VERY Southern sympathizing family, led by his mother Zerelda.

With the advent of the civil War, Jesse's older brother, Frank, first joins the  uniformed confederate forces fighting to take the state for the confederacy. with their defeat, he and the James' cousin, Cole younger join the guerilla band of William Quantrill, riding with him for at least two years, and participating in the infamous Lawrence Raid. James and Younger may then have joined the confederate Army, but when Quantrill is killed in Kentucky in 1865, Frank James is with him.

Jesse, because of his youth, doesn't fight for 'the cause', until 1864, when he joins the band of "Bloody Bill" Anderson. Jesse James was reputed to be one of the assassins that killed 24 unarmed Union prisoners at Centralia. He finishes the war with the remnants of Anderson's band [Anderson having been killed], but is shot in the chest when trying to surrender [the bullet was found in his coffin when an exhumation was conducted in the 20th century to determine if the body in James' grave was his.

Shortly after the Civil War, the James brothers, their cousins,  the Youngers, and a variety of interchangeable associates began over a decade of bank and train robberies. They were, in a sense,  America's first successful crime family. But the gang was shattered after the attempted robbery of a bank in Northfield, Minnesota. The Youngers wound up in prison, the then associates were shot to pieces, and Frank went into semi-retirement. But Jesse James wouldn't or couldn't give it up, recruiting lesser and lesser men to replace those who were gone. And in 1882, in return for a huge reward, and a pardon, two of them, Bob and Charlie Ford murdered James in his home in St. Joseph, Missouri. He was 35 years old.

Jesse James has entered our history and mythology as one of the leading figures of the Old West. Dozens of books, and movies have been created about him. He is probably one of the best known Americans in the world. But he was a sociopathic killer and thief. And it all started on this date in 1847.

1877:

On this date in 1877, Tshunka Witko, Crazy Horse of the Oglala Sioux is killed while resisting arrest at the Ft. Robinson Indian Agency in Nebraska. He was approximately 37 years old.

Crazy Horse was born around 1840 in Nebraska. In his youth he was called Curly, because his hair was brownish and wavy [rumors, untrue, persisted for years he was half white]. As a child he was present when General Harney attacked a village his family was in. And after that he was at war with the whites for the rest of his life.

As an Oglala, Crazy Horse was intimately involved with Red Cloud's war. In point of fact, he led the decoys that lured William Judd Fettermann and his command to their doom. So respected was he, that the Lakota named his as one of the four 'shirt wearers', a council of leading men to advise and direct the tribe. It was a singular honor. but Crazy's love for another man's wife, and his taking her to his own teepee, led to the man shooting him in the face [he was scarred for life], and the shirt being taken from him [he lost the woman, too].

Crazy Horse spent the next few years fighting the Crow, and raiding the whites. He eventually married, and had a daughter, who died. But he remained a 'wild' Indian, and like Sitting Bull, refused to accept reservation life, preferring to stay out on the unceded lands provided for by the Treaty of 1868, and living a traditional life.

That life was not to last. In the late fall or winter of  1875, the U.S. government ordered all the Sioux and Cheyenne on the high plains onto the reservations by Spring of 1876. It was to be war.

In the coalition Sitting Bull had put together, he functioned as head of state and Holy Man. Crazy Horse served as Generalissimo and field commander. and in 1876, he excelled at the role.

First he attacked George Crook's column at the rosebud, and came within an inch of annihilating it [Crook was saved by his Crow and Shoshone scouts].  Then, along with his subordinates, Gaul, Crow King and Rain in the Face, Crazy horse defeated the 7th Cavalry at the Little Big horn, wiping out George Armstrong Custer and five troops of his cavalry, a inflicting major damage on the rest of the command. It was his last hurrah.

After the Little Big horn, the Indians moved away, breaking down into smaller and smaller bands. But there was no relief for them. The Army brought in Nelson Miles and Ranald Mackenzie. They harried the Indians incessantly, and into the winter. Mackenzie scored a major victory over the Cheyenne. Sitting Bull fled to Canada. And in the Spring of 1877, Crazy Horse brought his people into Ft. Robinson and surrendered.

And there it might have ended, but for two factors. First, there was the jealousy of, and fear of loss of power by older, settled chiefs, such as Red Cloud and Spotted Tail [they could see the Army's respect for the new captive]. and then there was the 'new' war, between the Army and the Nez Perce.

The Army wanted Crazy horse and his Lakota and Cheyenne to scout for them against the Nez Perce. And although he was reluctant to do so, he agreed. But the translator, misinterpreted his words into a refusal that damn near amounted to saying that Crazy horse would join the Nez Perce.

Ordered to confinement in the stockade, Crazy horse [who probably had no idea what was happening or why], resisted. And one of the army guards bayoneted him, once. It was enough. Crazy Horse expired later that day. the greatest war chief the Lakota ever fielded was dead.

Did not know it was still active. Thanks PzLdr!

This winter I bought the DVD movie about Jack The Ripper with Jonny Depp. From Hell. It was pretty good.

1522: The expedition initially headed by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese sailing for Spain, arrives back in Spain after circumnavigating the globe [Magellan had been killed in the Philippines when his flotilla anchored there]. It was the first circumnavigation of the planet, and conclusively proved the Earth was round [as well as giving Spain claim to the eastern Pacific]

1781: Benedict Arnold, former Patriot Hero of Saratoga, Lake Champlain, Ticonderoga and Quebec; and now a Brigadier General in his Majesty's British Army, leads a raid on his former home, New London, Connecticut.

New London is being used as a storage facility and transfer point for military goods for the Continental Army, but the garrison is so laughably small, that it has to flee when Arnold approaches. Not satisfied with the capture of the goods, Arnold orders the city burned, and it is. It may be during this operation that the apocrophal conversation between Arnold and a local took place. Arnold supposedly asked a local what they would do if they captured Arnold. the local replied that they would give the leg crippled at Saratoga a burial with full military honors - and hang the rest of him.

1915: The first prototype of my weapon of choice, the tank, is rolled out in Britain. Under engined, and never used as a template, the first tank is used as a development platform for successively better [in relative terms for the time] upgrades, and by 1917, the tank begins its march to becoming the dominant weapon on the battlefield

["FORGE THE THUNDERBOLT!" - for all my classmates at Armor School, and all 'Treadheads' everywhere!]

1995: Cal Ripken, Jr., of the Baltimore Orioles, breaks Lou Gehrig's 'Iron Man' consecutive games streak established in the 1930s. Ripken continued to add to the streak until he chose to sit one out against, of all people, the New York Yankees. No one is even close to Ripken's new record.

1776: The TURTLE, an American submersible, makes the first submarine attack in history against an enemy warship, Lorde Howe's flagship, H.M.S. EAGLE. The attack is conducted by attempting to attach an underwater mine to the EAGLE's hull, which fails. The mine winds up exploding a short distance from EAGLE, but causing no damage to either EAGLE or TURTLE.

1876: During an attempt to rob a bank in Northfield, Minnesota, the James-Younger gang is shot to pieces see the thread on Jesse James]. the robbery is a failure [less than $30.00 taken, the youngers wind up in prison, and only Frank and Jesse James escape. Jesse will be dead in six years.

1936: The real king of Rock n' roll [IMHO] is born. Charles Harden Holley, who live go down in history as Buddy Holly, is born in Lubbock, Texas. An excellent guitarist, Holly writes, arranges and produces his own music, serving as an inspiration for later musicial giants like the Beatles, Dylan and you name it. Holly's meteoric career lasts some 18 months, and ends in a plane crash near Clear Lake, Iowa. He was 23.

1940: The bombing of London, handed down to us as the 'Blitz' begins.

During a mission against the London docks, a Luftwaffe He 111 had bombed a civilian neighborhood by mistake, and against standing orders, which at that time limited raids to military targets [I believe, if I recall correctly, the pilot was court-martialed and executed]. the bombing is all the excuse Churchill needs to bomb German civilian targets in response [the RAF was only really capable, at that stage of the war, of area bombing.

As a result, Hitler flies into a rage, and orders the bombing of London, abandoning the aforesaid military targets. The Luftwaffe bombs London for almost two months straight. But as all sides will learn, Douhet was wrong, and civilian morale does not break. What does begin to break is the Luftwaffe. Designed primarily as a tactical air force, the Luftwaffe's bombers do not carry a particularly impressive bomb load. Relying on speed instead of armament, they no longer can outrun fighters that came into production later than they did [Spitfires and Hawker Hunters], and lack range [having only two engines, and limited fuel capacity. The primary escort fighter designed for the bombers, the twin engined Me-110 ZERSTORER ['Destroyer'] is not particularly maneuverable, and needs an escort of its own against British fighters. The primary German fighter, the Me 109, also lacks range, and can spend no more than 20 minutes over London due to fuel constraints. Coupled with orders from Goering requiring close escort of the bombers, the Me 109s are basically neutered.

As a result of the Blitz, damaged RAF airfields and radar stations are given a breathing space to recover. German bomber losses soar,  since the RAF's fighters sit just to the north until the 109s are forced to leave, then swoop down and attack the bombers. And while serious loss of life and damage follows the switch of objectives, the Germans begin to lose planes faster than they can replace them.

Eventually the Germans switch to night bombing, and by Spring, 1941, even those attacks largely cease. Because the bulk of the Luftwaffe no longer faces Britain. It has moved east...

Army Group North of the German Army had suffered from the start of BARBAROSSA from the conflicting objectives of the German Army High command and the German Fuehrer, and, later, from the vagaries of Adolf Hitler's strategic insights.

Although the industrial zone south of Leningrad was on of Hitler's two intermediate strategic objectives for the Russian campaign [the other was Ukraine and the Donbass], Brauchitsch and Halder, the Commander in Chief of the Army, and the chief of the German General Staff, were fixated on Moscow, with the result that Army Group North was the weakest of the three Army groups to invade the Soviet Union [Army Group South, facing the largest area of operations was the second weakest].

Still, due to superb generalship by the Army commanders, the sole Panzergruppe commander [Hoeppner], and Erich von Masnstein now commanding a Panzer Corps, Army Group North drover deeply into the Baltic States in the immediate aftermath of the attack. And while slowed by terrain and soviet resistance, the drive continued, until it appeared likely that the Germans would take Leningrad in September.

Not so fast. Army Group Center, despite being the strongest Army Group in the whole order of battle, ran into trouble at Smolensk, where Soviet resistance cost them time, and men. Then one of AG Center's two Panzer groups [Guderian's] was sent south to complete the Kiev Encirclement. And that resulted in Hitler tinkering with the deployment of 3d Panzergruppe [Hoth - AG Center], and 4th Panzergruppe [Hoeppner - AG North]. He began shifting formations from one Army Group to the other and back again [see 4th Panzer Army during the Caucasus-Stalingrad operation. Hitler never learned], with the result that the road net got jammed with humongus traffic jams, speed was lost, and troops not needed at one point in time, would be redeployed elsewhere [often with troops from the originally deployed Panzer formations], causing more lost time, more lost maneuverabilty,   and the inability to mount an attack on Leningrad before the Reds had a chance to cobble together a defense.The Germans gave Stalin enough time to send Zhukov to Leningrad. And Leningrad held, with the Germans stopped south of the city.

At that point, Hitler announced Leningrad would be starved out [His original intent had been to seize and raze it]. And to that end, the Germans drove to Leningrad's east while their Finnish Allies drove down the Karelian isthmus. And with the capture of Shlisselberg, on Lake  Ladoga's shore, Leningrad was surrounded.

The city was subjected to artillery fire, and bombing raids. Unitl the winter froze Lake Ladoga, and the Soviets managed to build an ice road to truck in supplies, the Leningraders had almost nothing to eat. Many starved.

By the time the siege was lifted, in early 1944, the estimates of the dead ran up approximately 1 1/2 million military and civilians. the Germans had destroyed and/ or looted various museums and palaces [stealing the world famous amber room in the process]. But Leningrad held.

He was the self-proclaimed [and only] "Capo di Tutti Capi" ['Boss of all bosses']. He had fought a bloody internecine Mafia war for control of the Italian mob in New York against Joseph "Joe the Boss" Masseria. And he had won. He had then re-organized the Mafia in New York City into five families, a structure they still function under today. And then he made one mistake. He crossed Lucky Luciano. And that mistake was fatal.

Salvatore Maranzano was a late comer to New York. Unlike Joe the Boss, he had not emigrated to the United States with the early waves of Italian immigrants. Unlike Lucky Luciano, he had not arrived as a child. Maranzano had come to America in the 1920s, as an adult, an as a Mafia Don.

He gathered around him other Mafiosi from his hometown and region Castellammare del Golfo, including future Mafia Dons Joe Bonano, and Stefano Maggadino. He then began to cut into Masseria's rackets and 'territory'. The result was called the Castallamase War.

The Castallamarese War was strictly intramural. Except as hired hands, no outsiders were involved. No matter. the bodies piled up, and although Maranzano was winning, it was a long slow slog. The breakthrough came when Maranzano cut a deal with Masseria's underboss, Lucky Luciano.

Luciano had led an interesting life of crime. He had worked for Arnold Rothstein, along with a crew that included Jack 'Legs' Diamond, Louis 'Lepke' Buchalter and Meyer Lansky. his association with Lansky, and Benjaimn "Bugsy" Siegel went back to his adolescence. So Luciano came to his criminal adulthood in an ethnically mixed organization which operated on the principle that you worked with anybody you could make money with.

The Mafia at that time did NOT operate that way. Membership was for Sicilians only [Al Capone was never a Mafiosi. First he was American born. Second, he was of Neapolitan descent]. and even within the Mafia, they tended only to work with Mafiosi from their hiome region in Sicily [It was no wonder Luciano referred to them as "Moustache Petes"].But the Mafia knew talent and they wanted Luciano, putting increasing pressure on him to join. It was the classic offer you couldn't refuse. And by the time of the Castallamarese War, Luciano was Masseria's underboss.

But Luciano was extremely unhappy with the situation. He had an instinctive aversion to all the publicity the dead bodies in the street were causing, and the 'heat' that went with it. and the fighting was 'bad for business', as close to a religious credo as Lucky had.

So Luciano was receptive to Maranzano's overtures, and a deal was struck. Luciano would head his own family [he believed he was being offered an equal partnership with Maranzano]. There would be no repercussions against Masseria loyalists, who would be folded into the new organization. the price? joe the Boss.

Luciano took Masseria to a favorite restaurant in Coney Island for lunch. they ate, played some cards, and drank some wine. then while Lucky was in the bathroom, four men walked in, including mkore than likely, Albert Anastasia, and possibly Frank Costello and Bugsy Siegel, and opened fire. Masseria slumped dead on the table [the famous picture of him holding an Ace of Spades was actually posed by a photographer who responded to the scene]. the war was over.

Much to Luciano's surprise, he learned two things at the massive  banquet to herald the end of the war. First, he didn't get his own family and a partnership with Maranzano. He became Maranzano' underboss. Second, he became aware that Maranzano was in the processing of contracting one Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll to kill him. The betrayal did not sit well with the now betrayed Luciano. so he made his own plans.

Maranzano fronted his rackets with an office in the New York Central building. His only concern seemed to have been IRS agents. And then, mirabile dictu, four men, with badges and credentials appeared in his office, claiming to be from the IRS. they weren't. they were from Luciano [none were Italian, to avoid being recognized]. Maranzano was shot and stabbed to death [his guards, having been disarmed, were not harmed]. As the killers fled, they ran into Coll, who was a day late, and a dollar short for his meetin with Maranzano.

Luciano took over the New York Mafia. He gave Joe Bonano Maranzano's family. He abolished the title of "Capo di Tutti Capi", preferring Augustus Caesar to Julius Caesar [Maranzano's hero], and became Primus Inter Pares. He established  the  Commission to govern criminal activities like a Board of Directors. He actively cooperated and worked with non-Sicilian gangsters. Allegedly, he organized a massacre of "Moustache Petes" nationwide, the so-called "Night of the Sicilian Vespers", but that appears to be urban legend, more than fact. What he did do was drag the Mafia into the twentieth century, and made it the most successful, and longest standing criminal organization in American history. And it toke the death of two men, Joe the Boss and Salvatore Maranzano, to bring it about.

They came west on their way to a better life in California [one of their leaders had been there twice already], with a herd of cattle, and their worldly goods. They got as far as southern Utah.

Called the Baker-Fancher Party, or sometimes just the Fancher Party, they had left Arkansas and were traversing Utah in the summer and Fall of 1857. But it wasn't called Utah by all the locals. It was also called Navoo and Deseret, by many of them, the majority Mormon population.

The Mormons had been founded in New York, but had been driven west by many who had strong distaste for many of the Mormon's doctrines, particularly polygamy. And in the process, many Mormons [and some hostile non-Mormons] were killed, including the founder of the Church, Joseph Smith. But eventually, the Mormons reached Utah, and the Great Salt Lake, far from the people who had driven them ever westward, and founded their own society, a theocracy ruled by Brigham Young. and through their hard work, they prospered. but the outside world didn't go away. In fact, it came knocking on their door.

By 1857, the United states government began to assert its own claim to Utah. And when the Mormons ignored paying more than lip service to the government, the Constitution, and the rule of American Law, a military expedition under Albert Sidney Johnson was  sent west to settle the problem.

It was while that column was headed to Utah, and war fever was reaching a boiling point among the Mormons, that the Fancher party arrived in Salt Lake City. But the Mormons refused to sell the wagon train any supplies, or aid them in any way. So the wagons headed south, intent on taking the 'Old Spanish Trail' through Mountain Meadows and on to California. By taking that route, the party could rest at Mountain Meadows, with ample feed and water for their cattle, and game for themselves. It was a mistake.

While they were traveling south, word reached Utah that Parley Pratt, one of the Church's prophets, had been killed in Arkansas, by a man whose wife had left him to be one of Pratt's multiple wives. Under a Mormon doctrine called 'Blood Atonement', Pratt's death had to be avenged. And almost any Arkansan would do. Between Pratt's murder, the anxiety over the incipient arrival of the U.S. Army, and an extremely poor communications system [no telegraphs to southern Utah], the situation was a ticking time bomb. And then it exploded.

On September, 7, 1857, southern Utah Mormon militiamen, disguised as Indians, and allied Paiutes, launched an attack on the train. The emigrants fought back, laagering up in a wagon circle. But after four days, they were running low on water and ammunition. and at that point, John D. Lee, one of the Mormon leaders, approached under a flag of truce, informing the Francher Party that a deal had been worked out with the Paiute, and that in return for their goods, the Indians would allow the Mormon militia to escort them back to a nearby Mormon settlement. It was a lie.

The men were disarmed, and separated from the women and children, marched ahead. At a certain point, the overall militia commander [not Lee], ordered his men to fire, killing all the males. At the same time, the women and children, marching further back, were attacked  from ambush. They only people spared were young children, because under the 'Blood Atonement' doctrine, young children were exempt from such murder. and the Mormons believed that the children would be too young to be able to recall the events of September 11th, or testify to them [some 17 of the children were later recovered from the Mormon families who fostered them, and returned to their families in Arkansas]. It does not appear that the Paiutes participated in the killings.

The Indians received far less of the spoils than they were promised. they cattle were taken mostly by the local Mormon leaders, both military and civil. The rest of the goods were auctioned off. The bodies were quickly buried in shallow graves, or covered with brush. When the Army found them, they had been despoiled by local wildlife, with bones and remnants of clothing scattered all over the area.

Nothing could be done about Mountain Meadows in the immediate aftermath. There was a Civil War looming on the horizon. But in 1871, the U.S. Attorney for Utah began an investigation, and a former member of the Mormon Church [he had been a Bishop], living in Nevada, not only told what had happened [he had been there], but agreed to testify in court. and things had changed in Utah. Brigham Young had reached a modus vivendi with the Federal government. He still ruled, as governor. Relations with non-Mormons had dramatically improved. But someone had to pay. and that someone was John D. Lee. Convicted at his second trial, Lee was executed by firing squad. He was the only participant in the Mountain Meadows Massacre that was ever brought to justice.

Wow..did not realize he died in 1976. I knew he was responsible for millions of deaths. Not that many though.

I remember that in 95 Cal Ripken. My father told me...why does a guy get hi fives for going to work everyday? 

First....didn't know Buddy Holly died in a plane wreck.  2nd, no way in this day and age would the British people have survived the 'Blitz', to many snowflakes this day and age.

Gotta love the old Mafia nicknames.

1778: Joseph Brant, War Chief of the Seneca, and Captain in the British Army, leads a mixed force of Iroquois and Loyalist troops in a raid on what is now Herkimer, New York. The raid, conducted by some 400 + men, on what is then called German flats, is a spectacular success. Almost the entire town is burned down, and almost all of the livestock is taken. Yet despite the devastation, the loss of life is miniscule [3 men], since the 3 were part of a 4 man Colonial scouting team, and the 4th managed to warn the settlers and the tiny military force guarding the area of the impending attack, giving them time to flee to regional forts. By the end of the next year, Iroquoia will be largely burned out by the Colonials, led by MG John Sullivan, and Joseph Brant and his people will be living in Canada, where they remain until today.

1868: THE BATTLE OF BEECHER'S ISLAND

As a result of one of the most horrendous and sickening affairs in the Old West, the Sand Creek Massacre, western Kansas. Colorado and parts of Nebraska were aflame in the summer and Autumn of 1868 as the southern Cheyenne, their northern cousins and the Sioux went on a sustained raid to avenge the dead.

On this date, Major George Forsyth and some sixty frontiersmen were jumped by a force numbering hundreds of Indians. Forsyth and his men retreated to an island in the Arikara river [thereafter named Beecher's Island after a junior officer killed during the battle], and dug in.

The Indians had the advantage of numbers, and choosing the time, place[s, and method of attack. Forsyth and hs men had one advantage. Repeating rifles.

Those rifles came as a VERY unpleasant surprise to the Indians. And broke several charges. And while the Indians varied their attacks [they sent marksmen, snipers if you will to crawl into the tall grass, and pick off Forsyth's men], they grew impatient with their lack of progress, and increasing losses. And some of their anger was taken out on one of their own.

His name was MANG ["Bat"], and he was one of the two leading war chiefs of the legendary Cheyenne Dog Soldiers. We know him as Roman Nose.

Roman Nose had sat out the morning and early afternoon battles, because he had inadvertently violated one of the taboos that would negative his medicine [that prevented bullets from hitting him]. And until he underwent a specific purification rite, he was vulnerable.

But castigated and taunted by fellow Cheyenne, Roman Nose put on his now no longer medicine headdress, and led the next charge. He was shot out of his saddle and killed.

The siege continued for almost a week, with Forsyth's force reduced to some ten effectives. And then the Indians withdrew, quite possibly because outliers had spotted a relief column from the U.S. 10th Cavalry [Buffalo Soldiers] approaching. Forsyth was rescued, Roman Nose was dead. And the southern frontier was aflame until that winter and the next Spring, when the southern Cheyenne were broken. By George Armstrong Custer.

If you ever want to plumb the depths of how bad a fighting general George McClellan was, consider Antietam. Lee's first invasion of the North was premised on Maryland, a southern sympathizing state, furnishing hundreds if not thousands of eager recruits for the Army of northern Virginia. BUT, the southern sympathizers were mostly located on the eastern side of the state, and Lee invaded the [pro-Union] western side of the state. Result? No recruits.

Then Lee split his army, sending half of it under Stonewall Jackson south to take Harper's Ferry and its garrison, leaving Lee with Longstreet's Corp and Stuart's cavalry. Then Lee was driven back at South Mountain, to Antietam [or Sharpsburg, as it's also known], with his back to the Potomac. And finally, a complete copy of Lee's battle plan fell into McClellan's hands. It would seem a sure victory was in the offing. But it was McClellan.

The Union plan was rather like Lee's at Gettysburg, i.e., first attack the right, then attack the left, then fall on the center. The difference was Lee attacked at Gettysburg, with less men than his enemy, McClellan attacked at Antietam with almost prohibitive odds in his favor, but, being McClellan, he thought HE was outnumbered, despite knowing half Lee's army was absent from the battlefield.

The attack on the right made some, but not great progress. The attack on the left initially did better. Burnside took the bridge that now bears his name, but a pause allowed a scratch force of Confederates to prevent exploitation of the bridge Burnside, ignoring the fact that his men could wade the Antietam Creek, continued to attack OVER the bridge, with no success.

By late afternoon, McClellan's offensive had broken down to a series of uncoordinated attacks. the fighting was vicious, but the results were a stalemate, until A.P. Hill's Light Division appeared and drove straight into the Union lines, followed by the rest of the II Corps. Stonewall, having accomplished his mission was back.

Hill's attack brought the Union offensive to a halt. Despite his situation, Lee remained in his positions the next day, offering McClellan battle if he chose. McClellan chose not to engage, and Lee returned to Virginia.

McClellan had always been a favorite of the troops of the Army of the Potomac. But no more. Even they sensed the opportunity he had thrown away. When it was announced he had been relieved of command this time, there were no cheers and 'huzzahs' as he rode past the marching formations of what had been his Army. And militarily, his career was over.

He started the war as an Uhlan, but soon transferred to the Imperial German air force. He flew bombing and reconnaissance missions in the East, but soon transferred to fighter planes on the Western Front, where he came to the attention of Oswald Boelcke, the man who invented the tactics and fighter formations the Germans used for most of the War. And it was under Boelcke that Rittmeister  Manfred Freiherr von Richtofen scored his first kill on 17 SEP 1916. It was also when he started his practice of commissioning a little silver cup for each kill [twice as large from each tenth kill], and taking [if possible] a piece of the planes.

When Boelcke was killed, Richtofen took over command of Boelcke's squadron. It was also about the time he painted his plane red. And when his men followed suit, painting their aircraft different colors [but all with SOME red], the squadron became known as Richtofen's Flying Circus. It was the greatest assemblage of fighter pilots in WW I, and included Richtofen's brother Lothar, and after Richtofen's death, Hermann Goering [the last squadron commander].

Between his first kill in 1916, and his own death in April, 1918, Manfred von Richtofen went on to destroy 79 more aircraft in aerial combat. He was the highest ranking fighter ace of WW I.

She was, contrary to some belief, the largest German battleship ever built. Sister ship to BISMARCK, and second in her class, TIRPITZ was ready for action in January, 1942 [After BISMARCK's sinking, she had had additional AAA guns and armor fitted to her, with the result she outweighed BISMARCK by over 2,000 tons, and was delayed from being put in service].

But by the time TIRPITZ was operational, the questions facing the KRIEGSMARINE were where and how.BISMARCK was sunk. SCHARNHORST, GNIESENAU and PRINZ EUGEN were bottled up in Brest, France. HIPPER was in for repairs. ADMIRAL SCHEER was on what would be almost a year long cruise in the Indian and Pacific oceans. Enter Adolf Hitler.

Hitler was fixated on Norway as a 'zone of destiny'. He had some half million troops there. And he had conquered it, in part, at the urgings of the German Navy. So TIRPITZ was ordered there. And in a way, it made some sense. If she was ever to break out into the Atlantic, Norway was the logical jump off point. In Norway, TIRPITZ could be put out of the range of the selfsame RAF that made Brest a very unpleasant port for the there German capital ships holed up there. Norway's terrain and topography offered additional protection for the battleship [soon dubbed 'the Queen of the North'].

If Hitler was fixated on Norway, Churchill was obsessed with TIRPITZ, which he dubbed "The Beast". His obsession grew almost exponentially with Hitler's invasion of the USSR, and Allied efforts to supply the Soviets with supplies and material in that invasion's aftermath. Because one of the routes used was around the North Cape through the Barents Sea to the Russian ports of Murmansk [primarily] and Arkangel. And sitting in Norway, in easy reach of those convoys were not only Luftwaffe torpedo and bombing squadrons, as well as U-boats, but TIRPITZ, SCHARNHORST, HIPPER, LUETZOW, ADMIRAL SCHEER, and other surface ships.

The twig that broke the camel's back was Convoy PQ 17, and "The Knight's Move" in the summer of 1942. The Knight's Move was an operation designed to send the TIRPITZ first to northern Norway, and then into the Barents Sea to attack the convoy and its escort.

The first part of the operation went smoothly, if slowly. The Germans, already feeling the constriction of their oil supplies, moved TIRPITZ at less than top speed [much like BISMARCK's sailing at 27 knots after being struck by PRINCE OF WALES in, and losing fuel from her oil bunkers, during the Battle of the Denmark Strait (failing to top off in Bergen didn't help)] to northern Norway. But Enigma intercepts and other intel told the Royal Navy TIRPITZ was on the way. And in a remarkably in-Royal Navy move, the escorts were pulled, and the merchantmen ordered to scatter. As a result they were massacred by German aircraft and U-boats. TIRPITZ never left Norway. And Churchill was furious.

One scheme that got his whole hearted support was Operation Source, a plan that called for an attack on TIRPITZ with midget submarines ["X" craft]. Some six were sent to Norway, although only three participated in the attack [and ignored SCHARNHORST, anchored nearby]. And after penetrating the anti-torpedo nets, and dropping their charges under and near TIRPITZ's hull, they succeeded where numerous RAF raids had failed. An explosion lifted the battleship in the water and damaged her engine mounts. the crews of two of the X-craft were recovered. The others were not.

TIRPITZ was out of action six months, and after some repairs, she was  moved from Kaa Fjord to Trondheim, where she was once again within RAF range [she had been attacked in the north from British bombers flying out of Russia. This time she faced two new problems: 617 Squadron [the Dambusters, and probably Britain's best precision bombing unit], and a bomb especially designed for TIRPITZ, the "Tall Boy", a 12,000 pound blockbuster.

On November 12, 1944, 617 Squadron hit TIRPITZ twice, and scored a near miss. she capsized almost immediately, with around 1,000 of her crew killed. Churchill 'Beast' was dead. But was it worth all the effort? TIRPITZ had fired her guns once, during the operation against the Spitzbergen weather station. She had never fired on an enemy ship. And if the British had kept their nerve during the PQ 17 debacle, she may well have never left the shelter of Norway, and the merchantmen may well have survived. If nothing else, TIRPITZ serves as a focus on Churchill's often misguided and micromanagement of military affairs in WW II.

As for TIRPITZ, she was cut up for scrap. But pieces of the mighty ship still blanket the bottom and sides of the Fjord where she sunk.

He had been one of the great heroes of the Revolution: Ticonderoga, Lake Champlain, Saratoga. He was arguably America's finest field commander. But he had an overweening sense of honor, enemies in the Army and the Congress, huge debts, and a loyalist wife. His name was Benedict Arnold.

Arnold was also one of Washington's favorite subordinates. And after having to reprimand Arnold, at the direction of Congress for his military governorship of Philadelphia [Arnold's wounds from Saratoga had left him with one leg shorter than the other, and a limp for life], Washington was willing to give him anything. And after Arnold declined a major field command in the Continental Army, he gave Arnold what he wanted. command of West Point.

Arnold's request might have seemed a bit odd. Arnold's career to that point had shown a proven combat commander with great organizational and tactical skills, but a weakness for administration. But West Point was extremely important, strategically, commanding the Hudson River at a critical point and denying the British travel up towards Albany. So from Washington's point of view it was not a bad choice. From Arnold's it was even better.

Because Arnold, through the good offices of his wife, and her ex-swain [and current Intelligence chief for General Sir Henry Clinton, commanding General of British forces in America], was negotiating with Clinton to betray his post, and defect, handing over West Point, and all its troops to Clinton, in return for a cash renumeration, and a commission in the British Army.

How Arnold had arrived at this point was an epic in itself. Denied compensation for monies spent, bypassed for promotion by officers with less stellar records and seniority than himself, investigation and reprimanded over his dealings as military governor of Philadelphia, Arnold was ripe for the blandishments of his young wife, Margaret 'Peggy' Shippen, the spoiled daughter of a well known Tory family.

Andre journeyed to the West Point area to work out the details, and 'seal the deal'. He left with the plans of West Point in his boot, and a pass signed by Arnold to allow him to pass through the lines. But he was captured by a patriot patrol/ band of robbers [no one is sure which], the plans were found, and word was sent to West Point, where Arnold was awaiting  a visit from Gen. Washington. Tipped off that Andre had been captured, Arnold fled to H.M.S. VULTURE, and then to New York City. Playing the part of the overwrought and surprised wife, Peggy was sent to her family in Philadelphia. But Philadelphia wanted nothing to do with her, and shipped to Arnold in New York.

Arnold was now a British Brigadier General, who Clinton thought would raise an American Legion to fight for Arnold and the British He was sadly mistaken]. Andre was now in captivity, and having been captured in civilian clothes was awaiting trial and execution as a spy. Washington offered to trade him for Arnold. Clinton declined. And despite blustering threats from Arnold, importunement from Clinton, and the pleas of some of his own officers, Washington hanged Andre.

Arnold went on to lead British troops in Virginia [He almost captured Gov. Thomas Jefferson], and Connecticut [he burned down New Haven]. After the war he lived in London and Canada, returning to his pre-Revolutionary life as a trader/ businessman. But supposedly, no British officer would speak to him except in line of duty while he served, and he was not popular in British society.

Arnold died in some poverty. When his wife died, the locket she wore contained some of John Andre's hair. Four of Arnold's sons served in the British Army. none showed the talent for war their father did. but then again, none showed his talent for treason.

The only known monument to Benedict Arnold in the United States stands on the Saratoga battlefield. It is a plinth topped by a marble boot, located where Arnold's horse fell on, and crushed, his leg. It bears no name.

He was born in Munich, a son of a school teacher. His godfather [Himmler was a Roman Catholic] was the Wittlesbach prince of Bavaria. He rose to power second only to Hitler's in the Third Reich, oversaw some of the most horrific crimes of the 20th century, and was dead, by suicide, at the age of 45.

Himmler's lifelong dream was to be a soldier, and he was an officer candidate at the end of WW I. But Himmler never saw any action, and was discharged with the coming of peace.

Himmler then attended university, pursuing a degree in agriculture. He met and married an older woman, a nurse, and married. With his wife's savings, he purchased a poultry farm at Waldtrudling. He also worked for a fertilizer company.

But Himmler was also active in right wing politics. Active to the degree that as part of the Reichskriegflagge, he participated in the Nazi Beer Hall Putsch, serving under Ernst Roehm [there's a picture of him, with a group of fellow armed men outside the military building they had seized. Himmler is the one holding the flag].

After the return of Adolf Hitler from prison, Himmler became active in the Bavarian pasrty, as an organizer, propagandist, and eventually Deputy Gauleiter. the party, and Hitler, appreciated his organizational skills, and his hard work. Harder to swallow were his romantic theories on Germany's ancient history, the racial theories of the Aryans, and the paranormal.

Nonetheless, in 1929, Heinrich Himmler was made first, Deputy Reichsfuehrer of the SS, and then its Reichsfuehrer. It was a job he held in practice, until his death [Hitler ordered his replacement from the Bunker, but it was never implemented.

The SS had started as a select group of Nazis in each district, tasked with protecting Adolf Hitler, and eventually others. But Himmler decided it was not only to be an elite formation, akin to the Hohenzollerns 'Life Guards', but a racial elite as well. He tightened enlistment criteria, required candidates to furnish family histories into the 19th century for enlisted men, and the 18th century for officer candidates. And he began expanding the role of the SS in the Third Reich.

One of Himmler's first moves was to set up an SS Intelligence Service, which became, by Fuehrer Decree, the ONLY intelligence service in the Nazi Party. He then placed a new recruit, Reinhard Heydrich, specifically recruited for the job, in charge of that department [the SS SD].

The with the ascension to power of Hitler, Himmler began accruing the command of the various German state police departments [with Heydrich along as either Deputy commander, or chief of the Political Police section. By 1936, Himmler was Germany's first [and only] Chief of the National Police.

But Himmler didn't restrict himself to police work. He established the SS Race and Resettlement Office. He also took control of a growing number of Concentration camps, and established the SS Totenkopf ['Death's Head'] regiments to staff the camps, appointing Theodor Eicke as the Inspector General of the Camps.

The 30s were a busy time for Himmler. He helped orchestrate the Night of the long Knives, and hi SS men furnished the executioners and assassins that carried out the murders ordered by Himmler, Goering, Heydrich and Hitler. He may or may not have been involved in Heydrich's plan to bring about a purge of the Soviet military leadership through forged documents. He WAS involved in the increasingly stricter enforcement of anti- Jewish policy, and was an active participant in the Anschluss of Austria [He and Heydrich were in Vienna before Hitler was]. It was in Vienna that the SS set up [and ran] a Central Office for the Emigration of the Jewish population, under Adolf Eichmann]. It was also in Vienna that anti-Semitic actions took place.

The SS was also in the front for the annexation of the Sudetenland, and the absorption of the rest of the Czech lands. And it was there that the SS perfected the use of the Einsatzgruppen and Einsatzkommandos [mixed, ad hoc formations of police, SD, Gestapo and other units] in occupation, arrests and executions.

By 1939, Himmler's empire and responsibilities had grown. He ran the police and security of the Reich, via the RSHA, captained by Heydrich, and consisting of the Sicherheitspolizei [the Gestapo, Kriminalpolizei and SD], the Ordnungspolizei [uniformed police , which included uniformed police regiments], and the Death's Head regiments [the camps]. He commanded a military force of his own, the Waffen SS, consisting of the 1st SS regiment ["LEIBSTANDARTE SS ADOLF HITLER"], and the SS VERGUNGESTRUPPE Division [eventually the 2d SS Panzer division "DAS REICH"], as well as a cavalry regiment.

Additionally, he had been made Reichskomissar for Germaness, and was going to be responsible for the forcible evacuation of hundreds of thousands of Poles from areas taken from them in the Polish campaign, and the resettlement of Volksdeutsch from the USSR and other countries in their place.

And then their were Heydrich's pets, five Einsatzgruppen sent in behind the German Armies when they attacked Poland to kill any potential leadership for a Polish resistance, including priests, teachers, intellectuals, etc. And, the Jews.

The SS's record in Poland was so bad, he Army demanded court martials, and the military governor, blaskowitz, wrote directly to hitler to complain.

The result was Hitler pardoned all the accused, and turned Poland's governance over to Hans Frank, and civil authority, relieving Blaskowitz of his command [and never promoting him again].

As the war progressed, Himmler's power grew, and so did his areas of responsibility , and the size of the SS. The Waffen SS eventually numbered just shy of a million men in some 37 divisional size, or smaller, formations. the number of camps and their guards grew at a staggering rate. The Sicherheitspolizei expanded far beyond the Reich's borders, and their powers grew via such devices as the "NACHT UND NEBEL" ['Night and fog'] decree. Four Einsatzgruppen followed the German Army into the USSR, and within a year had murdered a million Jews.

For Himmler's Deputy, Heydrich, had been tasked by Goering with the final solution of the Jewish Problem, and the SS solution was extermination. And Himmler was in it up to his elbows [He personally ordered Rudolf Hoess to set up the camp at Auschwitz, and viewed at least one gassing there]. With the final solution, the SS turned to industrial scale murder, and Himmler oversaw it all. Nor did the crimes stop there. There was the destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto [ordered by Himmler], the destruction of Warsaw in 1944 after the Home Army's revolt.

And still Himmler climbed. In 1943, he became Interior Minister. After 20 July, he became commander of the Replacement Army. Eventually, he finally achieved his childhood dream, and became commander of Army Group Vistula. He was a disaster.

Himmler had enough self-realization to understand by mid to late 1944 that the war was lost. And he began to trim his sails accordingly. He sent emissaries to offer Jewish lives for war equipment [trucks]. He ordered the suspension of gassings [He had already ordered the disinterment and burning of the millions of corpses in the path of the Red Army. He ordered the Death Camps evacuated, and the prisoners marched west.

But in 1945, Himmler took the final, irrevocable steps. After leaving the bunker on Hitler's birthday, he attempted to open negotiations with Eisenhower to bring about a peace - with Himmler in charge of Germany. when hitler found out, he ordered Himmler removed from all his offices, and arrested and shot. But Hitler's writ was limited to the Bunker and Berlin, and Himmler avoided punishment - from Hitler, at least.

Himmler went on the run, disguised as a member of the Feldgarmerie, the German Field Police. Unfortunately for Himmler, he didn't realize that the SS had taken control of thse units in 1944, and all members were subject to Allied arrests and interrogations.

Captured by the British, Himmler, when it was realized who he was, took cyanide, and died. He was buried in an unmarked grave on the Luneburg Heath.

So who was he? The racial romantic who sent expeditions to Tibet to prove the Tibetans were Aryans? Tthe mystic crackpot of Wewelsburg castle who sent men all over Europe looking for the holy Grail? Or the Race warrior determined to purify the German bloodlines with fire and death?

He was all of these, and more. He was, unfortunately a first rate administrator and organizer with an unbelievable capacity for work, a rare ability to spot talent, and a will to see all his [and his Fuehrer's] crackpot ideas through, from conception to execution. And he was also a traitor, not only to humanity and the civilization from which he sprung, but also to the man and movement he led.Himmler had promised his men that he alone would take responsibility for the acts they had carried out in his name. The motto of the SS was 'MEINE EHRE HEISST TREUE', "My Honor Is Loyalty'. Himmler betrayed that oath, his men, and the man he has sworn loyalty to.

He is one of the great mass murderers in history, and a truly despicable human being.

It was founded by a Polish nobleman who was fervent Bolshevik [Feliks Dzherzinsky]. It was commanded, in its heyday by a dildo collector [Yagoda], a 'dwarf' [Yehzov], and a Georgian child rapist [Lavrenti Beria]. It was founded to carry out the 'Red Terror' after Fanny Kaplan's attempt on the life of Lenin. And it grew to be 'state within a state' that made the German SS pale in comparison. And as the Soviet Union slid into its twilight, its then Chairman, Yuri Andropov became the leader of the soviet Union. It went through various names and acronyms, including GPU, OGPO, NKVD, and KGB. But throughout its existence, its members were most often referred to as "Chekisty" - Chekists. And it still exists in present day Russia, under another title. And Russia is again ruled by one of its own.

The Cheka was founded by 'Iron' Feliks Dzherzinsky. He led it through its formative years, and the Red Terror. But the Cheka was not merely a Gestapo. It also combined the function of counter-intelligence in its work. And at that it was brilliantly successful [see Reilly, King of Spies]. But the Cheka and its successors was much, much more. The CHEKA/GPU/OGPU/NKVD/KGB achieved centralization Reinhard Heydrich only dreamed about.  It controlled the vast number of prison camps called the Gulag [the German camps were not under police control]. It controlled the border guards [the SA did in Germany], It controlled all of the intelligence gathering function, except that wielded to a far less degree by the GRU [Red Army intelligence]. And it became both the tool of, and symbol for, the waves of terror that swept over Russian from the civil War onward.

It was the Cheka that played a leading role in the Holdomar, by surrounding and searching the southern USSR for grain to be sold for machinery. It was the Cheka that supervised construction [with hand tools] of such Stalinist absurdities as the White Sea Canal. It was the Ckeka with their blue hats, that arrested the millions devoured by Stalin's purges, and murdered hundreds and thousands of the victims of those purges. It was "the organs" as they were called that murdered over 20,000 Poles captured in the opening days of WW II - when the USSR was Nazi Germany's ally. It was the Organs that supervised the hell that was the Kolyma gold mines and the rest of the gulag. It was mostly the organs that penetrated numerous spies into the countries of the USSR's allies [see the "Cambridge Five" and Great Britain], and it was the now NKVD that oversaw the stealing of America's atomic bomb secrets from los Alamos, Oak Ridge and Great Britain.

The Cheka, now KGB, continued to be "The Sword and Shield" of the Party. The conducted, or supported, assassinations of their, and other Warsaw Pact countries [read Bulgaria] enemies, real or perceived. And they ate their own. Yagoda was tried, executed, and replaced by Yezhov. Yezhov, who presided over the great purges of the '30s [the period was known as the 'Yezhovchina'] was tried, executed and replaced by Beria [who was killed in the turnover after Stalin's death]. And countless lesser security officers wound up in the gulag, or the grave, many as suicides.

The Organs played a major role in the suppression of the risings in East Germany and Hungary. One of their own was General Secretary shortly before Gorbachev [Andropov].

And while Iron Feliks' statue outside the Lubyanka was torn down, the building and its occupants, the latest in a bloodsoaked line that goes back to Dzherzinsky's blood stained hands, are still there. Under another acronym, but still there.

1941: Ted Williams finishes the season as what turns out to be the last player to hit .400. The Philadelphia Athletics let Williams know they will pitch to him, and not walk him purposely [He starts the first game of a doubleheader hitting less than .400]. Williams goes 6 for 8 in the two games and finishes the season at.406. He does not, however, win the MVP. that honor goes to New York Yankee Joe DiMaggio for his 56 game hitting streak.

1960: In his last at bat in the Major Leagues, Ted Williams caps his awesome career with a home run. Williams ends his career with 521 home runs, a career.344 BA, 2,654 hits, two Triple Crowns [1942, 1947], two MVPs [1946, 1949], and 17 All-Star appearances.

48 B.C:

Pompey Gnaeus [Pompey the Great], Roman general and leader of the senatorial forces opposed to Julius Caesar, is murdered when he steps ashore, in Egypt, by Pharaonic troops.

Pompey had fled to Egypt in the hopes of securing Ptolemaic support against Caesar after his crushing defeat by the latter at Pharsalus, in Greece.

Pompey had been one of the giants of the late Republic. A general of great stature, he was most renowned for sweeping the Mediterranean of pirates in an operation taking less than a year, in playing a prominent role in putting down the Spartacist Slave Revolt, and for conducting victorious military campaigns in the East.

A one-time son-in-law of Caesar [his wife died before the two men fell out], Pompey was a member of the First Triumvirate [with Caesar and Marcus Lucinius Crassus] that effectively ruled Rome in the late Republic. But by51 B.C. Caesar and Pompey had fallen out [Crassus had been killed by the Parthians at Carrhae], and when the Senate ordered Caesar to appear in the cityto answer charges, and Caesar crossed the Rubicon with the XIIIth Legion, an act of rebellion, Pompey assumed command of the Roman forces opposed to Caesar.

Unfortunately for the   Republican forces [and Pompey], they had never met a blitzkrieg like Caesar. Moving at speed, he first hustled the opposition out of Rome, and then out of Italy. and while Pompey trained new legions in Greece, Caesar marched west and destroyed Pompey's troops and support in Spain. then turning east, Caesar invaded Greece, and after maneuvering and inconclusive battle, Caesar met Pompey at Pharsalus, and inflicted a crushing loss on him. Pompey then fled to Egypt - and his doom.

Caesar arrived in Egypt hot on Pompey's heels. The Egyptians presented him with Pompey's head. If they were looking for thanks and rejoicing, they were wrong. Caesar was outraged. He then recovered what of Pompey he could, and gave it an honorable funeral. while the civil War was not over, the Republicans had lost their finest field commander. and what remained stood no chance against the military genius of Caius Julius Caesar.


1066:

William, duke of Normandy and claimant to the throne of Edward the confessor of England, lands unopposed at Pevensy, on the south coast of England.

William had been waiting on the coast of Normandy, his dukedom, for weeks, but winds from the north, and northeast had kept his ships in port. In England, meanwhile, the English Army, under Harold Godwinson, the king elected by the English, waited for the attack. But events, his brother Tostig, and the most legendary Viking of the Age, Harold Haadrada, king of Norway, drew him northeast when William failed to appear.

Tostig, challenging his brother's right to rule, had allied with Haadrada, and joined in an invasion of eastern England, centered on the old Viking power center of York. York fell, but the Viking army stayed in the region too long. Unaware until it was too late, they were caught camped on both sides of a river by Harold [with most of their arms and armor in York]. Haadrada managed to get his men on the same side of the river, and a lone Berserker held Stanford Bridge [and held up Harold's army] for almost an hour, during which he singlehandedly killed 40 Britons. Eventually, the Berserker was killed by a spearman under the bridge, and although weapons and armor had arrived,  the Vikings were in disarray, and like most of the day were caught wrong footed. Harold slaughtered almost all of them including Haadrada and Tostig], leaving only a few survivors to return to Norway as a warning. He then marched back south, having learned of William's landing, and consolidation of his beachhead. The two would meet at Hastings.

1918: The What Ifs of History.

After the British drive German troops from the village of Marcoing, Private Henry Tandey sees a wounded German crossing in front of him. Since the German is wounded, Tandey declines to shoot him, and lets him pass unmolested. In recognition of the deed, the German waves. And so it rests until the Hitler-Chamberlain meetings of 1938 leading up to the Munich Pact.

The first meeting takes place at the Berghof, and one of the things Hitler does is show Chamberlain a copy of a then well known painting of Tandey at Marcoing [Tandey won the V there]. Hitler then tells Chamberlain that the man in the painting spared his life at that battle.

Learning who Tandey is, Hitler wrote him a letter, reminiscing about the battle and their encounter. With the advent of WW II, Tandey has reason to regret his chivalry. for if he pulled the trigger in 1918...

It took until September 1941 for Germany's Army Group South to capture Kiev, capital of the Ukrainian S.S.R. But the withdrawing soviet troops and NKVD troops still managed to booby trap major buildings with delayed fuse booby traps and time bombs. And when they exploded, the damage, and injuries were severe. But working on the premise of never letting a catastrophe go to waste, the Germans decided use the event as an excuse for their genocidal actions against the Jews of the area.

The timing for the Jewish people, couldn't have been much worse, because in August, Himmler had ordered a change in the missions of the Einsatzgruppen. Initially after the invasion, the SS killing formations were tasked with killing only adult Jewish males. the women and children were not murdered. But Himmler changed that. So by September, the SS were killing ALL the Jews who fell into their hands. And there were a great number of Jews in Kiev when Einsatzgruppe 'C' rolled into town.

To the northeast of Kiev was a gully/ gorge called Babi Yar, used by the locals as a garbage dump. Both the Higher SS leader for Southern Russia, SS Gruppenfuehrer Friedrich Jaeckeln, and one of the Einsatzgruppen's Sonderkommando C.Os, SS Standartenfuehrer Paul Blobel, thought it made an excellent location for one of their 'special actions'. And Kiev was soon awash with posters ordering its Jewish residents to form up on a street in the northern part of the city for 'resettlement'.

There was no resettlement in the normal sense of the word. Moved by, and surrounded by, an increasingly large contingent of guards, the Jews were marched to Babi Yar, where they were first stripped of their clothing, and then marched to an area largely encircled by higher ground. It was at that point that they were lined up and shot, with SS descending to the lower ground to administer the coup de grace for anyone not already dead. No one really knows if Jaeckeln and Blobel were fully aware of how many Jews were in Kiev, and would respond to the assembly order, but they became aware soon enough.

The shootings went on for three days. And by the end of those three days, some 33,000 + Jewish men, women and children were dead in Babi Yar. It was the largest single murder of Jews pre-Death Camp, and most likely exceeded, for a three day period, even those hell holes. And it began on 29 SEP 1941.

In the 4th inning of the last regular season game of 1961, Tracy Stollard of the Boston Red Sox served up a pitch to Yankees right fielder Roger Maris that sailed into the right field stands. And with that pitch, and that hit, Maris' 61st home run,Maris broke a record set in 1927 by another Yankees right fielder, George Herman 'Babe' Ruth - 60 home runs in a single season.

The entire '61 season had been legendary. the Yankees rampaged through the league on their way to their second straight League Championship , after failing to win in '59 [to the white Sox], although they had been League Champions from '49 to '53, and '55 to '58 and World champions from '49 through '53, '56, '58 and '60.

But '61 featured the pursuit of the crown jewel of Yankee lore, Ruth's 60 HR by not one, but two Yankees, Roger Maris and Mickey Mantle. And it didn't hurt attendance that the '61 Yankees would set a team HR record that would last for years [the Yankees carried three catchers, Howard, Berra and Blanchard that year that hit 60 HR between them]. That year it rained baseballs.

But the centerpiece of the season was Mantle and Maris, the Yankee favorite [in his 10th full season], and the two year acquisition from the K.C. Athletics. And then in September, Mantle, with 54 HRs had to drop out of the competition, because of an abcess on his hip and Maris soldiered on alone, under increasing pressure, and sadly, fan abuse from Yankees fans who had wanted Mantle to break the record.

Even after hitting his 61st, Maris was deprived of the recognition he deserved. For one thing, his record overshadowed his all around abilit8ies as a ball player. He was an outstanding defensive right fielder, and an intelligent base runner. His BA was solid. not .300, but solid. And the baseball commissioner, Ford Frick a reporter/ Babe Ruth groupie in his youth, decreed that Maris' record be noted with an asterisk next to it, because he had hit # 61 in 162, not 154 games [Frick overlooked the fact that Maris hit his 61st in less  at bats than Ruth hit his 60].

Maris played a few more seasons with the Yankees and was then traded to the Cardinals, where he finished his career. His HR came to the fore again with Mark Maguire's breaking of the record. A film '*61' was made by Billy Crystal to commemorate that magic season.

Wow I knew he was good, but not that good!

 I met him in 1961. He gave me an autographed ball [I still have it[, even though I was a Yankee fan. Saw him play quite a bit when I was young.

Their name was shorthand for the Club's original name, "The Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers", and in the Golden Age of Baseball, they were one of THREE teams in greater New York, The New York Giants [the polo Grounds, in Manhattan], the Dodgers [Ebbetts Field, in Brooklyn], both National League Teams, and the Yankees [ Yankee Stadium, in the Bronx], the sole representative in the American League.

The Dodgers were a powerhouse in the National League. In fact, they played the Yankees in five World Series in 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, and 1953. The dodgers lost all five.  So in 1955, the Dodgers squared off with the Yankees again, with their fans usual mixture of hope and resignation. They were a solid team, with Pee Wee Reese, Gil Hodges, Roy Campanella, Sandy Amorose, Junior Gilliam, Duke Snyder, and pitchers like clem Labine, Donj Newcombe, and Johnny Podres [they also had a somewhat wild youngster named Sandy Koufax]. But they faced Mickey Mantle, Moose Skowron, Hank Bauer, Yogi Berra, Gil McDougal, Billy Martin, and Elston Howard, plus pitchers like Whitey Ford, and Tommy Byrne.

The Dodgers dropped the first two games of the Series at the Stadium, but took the next three at home. They lost Game Six in the Bronx, forcing Game Seven. And in a combination of great play, Casey Stengel 'genius' [He pulled Byrne who had only given up three hits for a reliever who the Dodgers feasted on], and a touch of luck [plus Podres' great 7 innings plus pitching, and a great play by Amoros, doubling up the Yankees, and ending a threat on their part], the 'Bums' won their first series in New York [I still remember the front page of the "DAILY NEWS"].

The next year, it was back to business as usual. the Dodgers faced the Yankees. The Yankees beat them. It was the last time the teams would meet in an intra-city rivalry. The next year the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles, and the Giants to San Francisco, leaving the Yankees as the only New York baseball team until the advent of the Mets in 1962.

The L.
A. Dodgers went on to face, and beat, the Yankees in 1963, and 1981. They lost to the Yankees in 1977, and 1978. But it wasn't the same as when 'Dem Bums' lived and played in Brooklyn.

Bonus Points:

Q: Which were the three Beer sponsors of the New York baseball teams in the 50s?

A: Ballantine [the Yankees], Rheingold [The Giants], Schaefer [The Dodgers]

They were distant cousins of Frank and Jesse James. They had originally been U.S Marshals, following in the steps of another brother, but the tedious and grueling work, and low pay found them sliding into a life of crime, first cattle rustling, then horse theft, and then train and bank robberies. they were the Dalton brothers, Bob, Grat, Emmett and Bill. And for almost two years they were the terror of the Oklahoma region. But it all came to a crashing end on October 5, 1892, when the Daltons decided to rob two banks at once, in Coffeyville, Kansas.

No one is sure why the Daltons decided to try for two banks at once. Some believed bob Dalton sought to surpass anything his relative Jesse James had ever accomplished or even attempted. Most questioned why the gang chose Coffeyville, since the Daltons had lived there in their youth and the risk of identification was a distinct possibility [The Daltons were concerned enough to wear false beards as a disguise]. And the gang split over whether or not to attempt the robbery. Among those who declined to participate were Bill Doolin, and Bill Dalton. So when the gang rode into Coffeyville, there were only five men: Bob Dalton, Grat Dalton, Emmet Dalton, Dick Broadwell and Bill Powers.

they left their horses in an alley, and walked to the two banks, with Bob and  Emmett going to one, and Grat, Broadwell and Powers going to the other. BUT, the Daltons had been recognized. The alarm went out, and the townsmen gathered, bringing their own weapons, or being armed by the owner of the hardware store.

When the gang exited the banks, they ran into a wall of fire. Even those that got to their horses were shot to pieces. when the smoke cleared, four townsmen were dead. but so were Bob Dalton, Grat Dalton, Dick Broadwell and Bill Powers. The only gang member to survive was Emmett Dalton, and he was sentenced to life in prison [he served 14 years, and was then pardoned].

And although not in the way he had intended, if he did so, Bob Dalton did surpass one of Jesse James' feats. He lost almost all of his gang, and his own and one brother's life, at Coffeyville, which was a lot worse than Jesse suffered at Northfield.

The New York Yankees cap a half decade of excellence, winning their fifth straight World Series and National championship, by beating the Brooklyn Dodgers in six games.

The hero of the Series was Yankees second baseman Billy Martin, who hit .500 in the Series, including a couple of homers, a couple of triples and a double.

In winning their 5th title in five years [which no team had done before, nor done since], the Yankees surpassed the four consecutive Series wins of the 1936-1939 Yankees.

The Yankess would go, over the next 11 years, to play in the 1955, 1956, 1957, 1958, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963,  and 1964 World Series. They would win the Series again in 1956, 1958, 1961, and 1962.

It had begun promisingly enough. after stalemate in New England, abandonment of Philadelphia and New Jersey, and defeat at Saratoga, the British government thrashed about for a new strategy to win the war. what they came up with was an old strategy in a new place - the Southern Colonies.

The British Army had invaded New Jersey, in large part, because of the belief that the legions of Loyalists in the State would flock to the colors, and enroll in Loyalist regiments to help the British and Hessians fight the American forces. They were mistaken. and whatever possibilities that strategy might have had, ended when the British Army and the Hessians withdrew from the state, leaving its Loyalists to the mercy of the Patriots.

Howe tried the same approach the next year when he invaded Pennsylvania and seized the capitol of the state and Congress, Philadelphia. and while loyalists were more than willing to party with the British, and trade with them, again few flocked to the colors.

And then came Saratoga. While Howe was swanning about in Pennsylvania, "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne was getting his headed handed to him in upstate New York, losing his army in the effort [While Howe's deputy, Henry Clinton saw the looming debacle clearly, Howe hamstrung him for giving Burgoyne meaningful aid. That action resulted in the failure of the 1777 campaign, France's making an alliance with the United states, the loss of Burgoyne's army, and the relief of Howe as Commander-in-Chief.

Clinton succeeded his boss. Rather like Cassandra, Clinton proffered excellent advice that was seldom heeded. and when it was [Long Island], the British won. When it wasn't [Pre-Breed's Hill, the battles for Manhattan, the deployment of troops in New Jersey, how to support Burgoyne], the British generally either lost, or failed to crush the Americans.

So as a commander with insufficient troops to conquer America, Clinton cast about for a way to force the Americans to sue for peace, to add to the numbers of troops available to campaign [looking for Loyalists again]. He settled on a southern strategy. Except for troops necessary to defend New York City from Washington, the troops in Rhode Island, and some raiding parties, Clinton took the bulk of his forces to the South.

At first the campaign went exceptionally well. Clinton took both Savannah and Columbia. He then returned to New York city [and his mistress], leaving the field command in the very capable hands of Gen. Charles Cornwallis.

But the southern war proved to be multi-layered. In addition to regular troops and militia, the Patriots produced guerilla bands that basically turned the British Army into a self-contained foreign object in a sea of Americans. concededly, the British aspiration to legions of Loyalists bore some fruit. Loyalists did flock to the standards, both as regular units, and Loyalist guerillas. Clinton also offered freedom to runaway slaves who would serve in the British Army. It provided recruits, but also alienated many Southerners, both rebel and loyalist.

The British used many of the Loyalist troops to garrison strongpoints they had taken or built, and to provide security for supply convoys, etc. but some were used as combat formations. one of the most notorious units operating under Cornwallis was Banastre Tarleton's Loyalist Legion which was comprised of both British and Loyalist troops. Tarleton's brutality would have an indirect impact on King's Mountain.

Cornwallis, having pacified [it seemed] his rear, moved north, seeking battle with the continental Army. As he did so, his left was covered by a force of largely Loyalist troops commanded by Major Patrick Ferguson [he had maybe 100 British regulars in his unit]. Ferguson was famous in the British Army as the designer of a rifle intended to replace the Brown Bess musket. He was also the man who refused to shoot George Washington in the back during an accidental meeting earlier in the war.

Ferguson issued a rather grandiose proclamation ordering submission or death. The settlers from the backcountry decided to do something about that. About 1,000 of the "Over the Mountain" men [mostly Scots-Irish]gathered and began hunting Ferguson.

Ferguson and his men took up position on King's Mountain. Unfortunately for them, they took up position on the TOP of the mountain, depriving themselves of both cover, and good firing lanes. The Rebels, who had the mountain surrounded, made good use of fire and maneuver, and cover, and advanced up the hill, delivering a murderous fire on the Royalists.

Covering his uniform blouse with a plaid jacket, Ferguson mounted a white horse and led a charge seeking to break through the rebels. But they had been alerted by a young boy who gave them Ferguson's description. He was shot out of the saddle and killed.

At that point, the Loyalists attempted to surrender. But the rebels' blood was up, since Tarleton's butchery of surrendering Colonials at Waxhaws. So the rebels began murdering surrendering Loyalists, until their officers re-established order and discipline. The British lost over 150 dead, over 160 wounded, and almost 700 captured. Coupled with the subsequent battle of Cowpens, that saw off Tarleton's Legion, and the battle of Guilford Court house, Cornwallis was forced to abandon the deep south, and head to Virginia, Yorktown, and the capture of his own army.

And the loyalists, like their compatriots in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, were left to the mercies of their rebel counterparts. But at least they fared better than many of the runaway slaves, who were taken to the Caribbean, and re-enslaved.

On their return to Japan after bombing Pearl Harbor, the KIDO BUTAI received an interesting order from the high command. Admiral Nagumo was ordered to send Carrier division 2 [SORYU and HIRYU] to Wake Island where, to put it charitably, the Japanese invasion of the island was a mammoth failure.

Wake Island was held by a force of U.S. marines, and navy personnel, including naval air elements. The island was also laced with various artillery pieces [including 5" guns], and fortifications that had been constructed, in large part, by civilian contractors [Pan Am also had a hotel and anchorage for its Clipper flights on the island, and more civilian workers of their own.

Initial Japanese efforts had mixed success. they destroyed some 8 of 12 planes on the ground. but they lost two destroyers, had a cruiser damaged and failed to land troops during the initial assaults. Hence, Carrier Division 2.

With the air  power of the Japanese carriers, over a thousand Imperial Japanese Marines, and two more cruisers, the outcome for Wake was inevitable. And after further resistance proved futile, the garrison, and the workers still on the island surrendered.

The military personnel were evacuated to POW camps throughout the Japanese Empire. but the civilian workers were kept on Wake, to build further fortifications, and improve the fortifications there. And there they stayed until 1943.

But in 1943, U.S. carrier aircraft raided Wake. Fearing an American invasion, the Island's commander had the some 98 American prisoners marched to the north end of the island, put in a trench and machine gunned to death [one escapee was recaptured and beheaded by the garrison commander]. And there the matter remained until Wake's surrender after the surrender in Tokyo Harbor. When Wake surrendered, several of the Japanese officers had committed suicide. but they left letters incriminating the garrison commander and his second in command. Both were tried for war crimes, with the commander being hanged, his deputy sent to prison. And the slain workers were disinterred, and buried, with honor, at the 'Punchbowl' in Hawaii.

It was Christianity's first win over the Muslim invaders of Christendom. It saved all of Europe [for the time being] from enslavement to Islam. It was the battle of tours, in France.

Islam had erupted out of the Arabian peninsula in the mid 7th century, and had quickly overrun the Christian governances of Egypt, the Middle East [Syria, Palestine],and the African littoral. Islam then turned its eyes on mainland Europe. The invasion came from western North Africa, via the island of Gibralter [a corruption of the Arabic 'Gibal al Tarik', the rock of Tarik (the invasion's leader)]. And from the Muslim point of view, it couldn't have come at a more opportune time.

Spain was ruled by the Visigoths, the same Visigoths who had pillaged Rome in the early 5th century. But the Visigoths weren't alone in Iberia. there were lesser kingdoms of Alans, and other former barbarians who had overridden the Western Roman Empire and had kept going, until they reached Iberia. And while the Visigoths were the preeminent rulers, they were engaged in internecine wars, both with other peoples,  and within their own ruling house. in short, they were easy pickings.

It didn't take long for the Muslims to occupy the entire peninsula, killing the Visigothic king in the process. And by the early 8th century, having organized Iberia into a series of their own kingdoms, they sent an army over the Pyrenees to their next target. what we today, call France.

By the time of the Muslim invasion, one tribe, the Franks, had become predominant in the area. And they were led by the Charles Martel ["The Hammer"]. The Franks were, at the time, expanding themselves, and when they collided with the Muslims at Tours, the fate of Europe may well have hung in the balance.

The Muslims were primarily a cavalry force. the Franks were mixed. But the Franks took up a defensive position on high ground, where the Muslim mobility was stalemated, and beat off the Muslim attackers, killing the governor of Cordoba in the process.

The result of the battle was twofold. First France, and with France Europe was saved. The Muslims in Spain never invaded again. Second, Martel's victory assured his house would rule the kingdom of the Franks. His son, Pepin, was the first of France's Carolingian kings. his grandson, Charlemagne, was the first Holy Roman Emperor.

Benedict Arnold had been a busy man by October, 1776. He had captured fort Ticonderoga from the British, along with Ethan Allen [who took all the credit], led one of two American columns that invaded Canada in the winter [traveling, on foot, through Maine], been seriously wounded in the attempt to take Quebec, and led the combined Patriot army [Gen. Montgomery had been killed in the assault] back into New York with the British hot on his heels.

And there, Arnold faced a problem as 1776 wore on. The British, under Gen. [and Canadian governor] Sir Guy Carleton began building a warship, and bringing other boats and ships down to the northern end of Lake Champlain, with the obvious intent of sweeping south, seizing control of the lake, and positioning themselves to invade northern New York.

Arnold's solution was to build or acquire a fleet of his own, but not all the same type craft as the British. Arnold built galleys that could be rowed, or sailed, and loaded the best of them with artillery. He also had three sloops and a schooner, but the British heavily outgunned him. The plan was simple. either beat the British [unlikely], or delay them until the seasonal winds and weather would make British operations to the south from Canada impracticable.

Having chosen his means, Arnold next chose the place. He chose the western passage of Valcour Island, to gather his and position his fleet. He did so fairly certain that the British would sail down the eastern side of the island, passing him before they spotted him, and  then be forced to reverse direction to engage him.

An early morning fog, and some British mistakes regarding reconnaissance, led to the British failure to sight any of Arnold's ships as they came down from the north, and they then passed east of the island. it was only when they were past Valcour that Arnold's flotilla was spotted, and the British turned to engage. By the time darkness arrived, the Americans had  caused damage to two British ships, and caused the sinking of a third. But most of the American ships were destroyed. Deploying Indians onto the New York side of Valcour, Carleton blockaded the island, determined to finish Arnold off the next day.

But Arnold and the remainder of his men and fleet escaped, in the fog that night. It wasn't until the next day that Carleton caught up with Arnold. He sank two more of Arnold's ships, but Arnold found a shallow bay, where the British couldn't follow. He beached his remaining ships, and with flags still flying, burnt them. he then led his men overland to crown Point, which he torched, and then on to Ticonderoga.
Carleton occupied Crown Point, and sent out some patrols, but the turning weather [and wind], made the possibility of re-supply and reinforcement dicey. So Carleton withdrew to Canada. The next time the British came down the Champlain route was overland [mostly, after leaving the Lake], and they were led not by Carleton, but by GEN. John "Gentleman Johnny" Burgoyne. And the result of that invasion was the Battle of Saratoga, an American alliance with France, and Britain's eventual defeat.

And Arnold? He would be the major reason the Amricans won at Saratoga. But by the time America won its independence, he had turned his coat, betrayed his country, and fought for the British as a brigadier general.

He was arguably, Germany's best known general of World War  II [still is]. A non- Prussian [he was a Wurtemburger], and a non-member of the German General Staff, he was, at the time of his promotion in 1942, the youngest field Marshal in the Wehrmacht. And on 14 OCT 1944, he faced a Hobson's choice of cosmic proportions: public trial and conviction for treason against his Fuehrer arising out of the 20th of July plot, or death by suicide, courtesy of the poison brought to him by two German generals.

Rommel had started the Second World War commanding Hitler' Army Security Battalion in Poland [he had also held that job during the Anschluss and Czech occupations]. But in 1940, Hitler gave Rommel [a career infantryman], command of the 7th Panzer division for the French campaign, and Rommel took to armored warfare like a duck to water [which would surprise nobody who studied his operations as a junior officer in WWI, or who had read his book, "Infanterie Greift An"-"On Infantry Attacks"]. Rommel led the way to the Channel coast, being the first across the Meuse, and the first to break through the French Army. He led the attack in the second phase of the French campaign [operation 'Red'], and capped the campaign with the capture of the 51st highlander Division, and the seizure of Cherbourg [covering over 100 miles in one morning].

Hitler then sent him to Africa, as a backup for the floundering Italians. going beyond the defensive role envisaged for him by the OKH and the OKW, Rommel turned eastern Libya and Western Egypt into a major theater of war for two years with few troops and scant resources.

Like many German officers, Rommel had been quite impressed with Hitler [and vice versa]early on. But that admiration had taken a severe hit at El Alamein, when Hitler ordered Rommel and his men to stand fast and fight to the last bullet in a hopeless situation. It got worse during the Normandy operations post D-Day. Rommel had correctly surmised that the standard German battle drill of holding armor in reserve and counterattacking would work in Normandy, since he, alone among the senior German Generals in France had faced the overwhelming might of Allied air power. but he was at odds with his commander, Field Marshal von Rundstedt [who had last commanded troops in the field in Russia in 1941, when the Germans had absolute air supremacy]. So Htler made a compromise decision that backed neither general fully, and wound up leaving the bulk of the Panzers behind the beachhead area except 21st Pz., near Caen]. It was a recipe for failure, and fail it did.

Historians can't be sure of when Rommel decisively turned against Hitler, but they are sure of several things. First Rommel [along with both Rundstedt and the latter's successor, von Kluge], surmised early on that the battle for Normandy was over in all but name, and that Germany could no longer win the war. Second, Rommel began to press Hitler to seek and end to the war, and confronted him in writing, and in person on that matter several times, pointedly telling Hitler that the war in the West was reaching a critical point, and to draw his own conclusions. Third, Rommel was in contact with elements of the resistance.

What is unknown is how involved with the plot Rommel was. It appears he was not told Hitler was to be assassinated [he wanted Hitler arrested and tried, although a British captive, Gen Eberbach said Rommel told him Hitler had to be killed]. On 17 JUL 1944, the day he was seriously wounded by a British airplane, Rommel had been visiting his Waffen SS commanders, including Sepp Dietrich, commander of 1st SS Panzer Corps, and Willi Bittrich, commander of the 2d SS Panzer Corps, as well as some of their subordinates. and it appears thathe put the same question to them all. If contraryorders came from him and from Hitler, who would they obey. Dietrich led the rest in affirming that they would obey Rommel. At the very least, it appears Rommel was toying with opening the Western Front to the Allies and surrendering OB West to them.

But the air attack changed all that. Rommel was unconscious in a military hospital when Stauffenburg set off the bomb. He was convalescing when many of the conspirators were arrested, tortured, tried and killed. But at least two mentioned his name. And enemies he had made in the German Army cast him out of the officer corps, so he could be tried by Freisler's People's Court. But that created a problem. What effect on the German people would result when Germany's most famous and popular general was seen to have conspired against Hitler?

So on 14 October, 1944, a limousine driven by an SS NCO, and carrying two army Generals, Burgdorf and Maisel, drove up to Rommel's home at Herrlingen, through a cordon of SS troops surrounding the place, ostensibly to offer Rommel a new command, but in reality to offer him an illusory choice. He could accept a public trial [and guilty verdict and death sentence, assuming he wasn't killed on the way to Berlin], or he could commit suicide. If he chose the former, Rommel's wife, Lucie, and his son, Manfred, would be sent to a camp under the doctrine of Sippinhaft [punishing the family of a traitor]. If he chose suicide, his family would be spared, no action would be taken against them, they would be provided for, and Rommel would receive a state funeral, with his death attributed to the wounds he had received in the air attack.

Rommel chose door number two, suicide. After informing his family and aide what was happening, Rommel climbed into the car with Burgdorf and Maisel. The car halted a short distance from the house, Burgdorf gave Rommel a cyanide capsule, and he, Maisel and the driver exited the car, the two generals walking a short distance away. Within twenty minutes after leaving his house, Erwin Rommel, Generallfeldmarschall, holder of the Knight's Cross with Swords and Oak Leaves, holder of the Pour le Merite, holder of the Panzer Assault Badge and Wounds Badge was dead. A sad end to a magnificent life.

Fifty years ago, give or take, the world became a better place when the Bolivian Army whacked one Ernesto "Che" Guevera, doctor, Marxist, revolutionary, guerilla, and t-shirt icon.

Guevera, screen icon from "The Motorcycle Diaries, and other celluloid trash, rose toi fame as one of Fidel Castro's loyal lieutenants in the campaign that toppled the Batista regime in Cuba. A 'commandante', who led one of the columns, that marched on Havana from the Sierra Maestra, Che was proclaimed as military genius, a paragon of revolutionary virtue [he and the Castros were keeping their Marxism a secret at the time], and a capable administrator. He was none of those.

Che first showed his true nature to the world [he had already shown it to his fellow guerillas and the Cuban populace in the mountains] as the Commandant of La Cabana prison. It was there that Che had a hole knocked in the outer wall of his office so he could watch the dozens of executions conducted in the name of the revolution in the courtyard below. Abnd there were hundreds of them [In the mountains, Che not only supervised executions, he handled them himself, usually old men and teenagers, all unarmed].

But Che was ready for bigger things. So he was made economics minister and head of the bank. And like any good Marxist, he then set about killing the economy, like he did prisoners, with even greater success and excess.

And so it proceeded apace. A visit to the U.N. and New York. The public embrace of both his Marxism [real], and admiration and love for the Soviet Union [feigned]. And then there was the Cuban Missile Crisis. It appeared that both Castro and Che were in a competition to see who could be more radical. Both declaimed that they wanted the missiles in Cuba fired at the United States. Both seemed to welcome nuclear war between  the Soviets and Americans. Problem was the Soviets didn't. Both complained when the soviets pulled their missiles out of Cuba. But Castro knew from whence his bread came buttered, and buckled under. Guevera didn't. His bitterness was loud and clear to all. And his warm words about the Chinese didn't help.

and then there was the perception problem. The Cuban Revolution could have only one hero. and that hero, according to Fidel, was Fidel. So, with a little urging from the soviets, and an economy in ruins, Castro needed little pressure to send the quixotic Guevera on his way to foster 'World Revolution, because Che saw, from his clippings that he was a genius of guerilla warfare.

So che took his genius, his theories and a bunch of Cubans to Africa, to participate in the war ranging in the Congo. What could be easier? Answer, almost anything.

Guevera despaired of the 'Simbas' he'd partnered with [showing a good deal of racism in the process]. Apparently they hadn't read his tomes. Apparently they weren't in sufficient awe. Obviously, they didn't follow his orders or suggestions. and the European mercs he was pitted against didn't listen, or read either. Because they commenced to whip the simbas on the battlefield. So Che left, accomplishing only one thing of note. He had put the CIA on his trail.

And that trail led to Cuba [briefly], and then on to Bolivia.

Che still believed in world revolution. An the mountainous areas of  Bolivia offered an area like the Four Corners in the U.S. southwest. It provided a common border with two other countries to which Guevera could spread his revolution.

So with a pack of Cubans, Guevera slipped into Bolivia, made contact with the Bolivian communist Party [ mostly for re-supply and re-inforcement], and acclimatized himself to the mountains [Che had asthma]. He also brought a woman, one Tamara Buncke, ostensibly from East Germany as a liaison  [but possibly as a minder]. And then the wheels started to fall off. First, Guevera refused to cooperate with the Bolivian communists. He merely tried ordering them around. Result? Recruits and supplies dried up. then the U.S notified the Bolvian government that they suspected Guevera was in-country. Then the two countries agreed to have a Green Beret team train a battalion of Bolivian Rangers to track the guerillas and destroy them

Against this background, Che found that the Bolivian peasants weren't receptive to his message. The government had already undertaken land, and other reforms. So while it wasn't paradise, their wasn't much enthusiasm for Bolivian, let alone world, revolution in them their hills. And when persuasion failed, coercion followed, with food seizures, and impressment of 'volunteers' for the 'struggle'. One result was that the peasants began flipping the guerillas in, with the result that the Bolivian Rangers got on their trail and hounded them relentlessly.

And the Guerilla 'genius'? He split his force into two columns, and they promptly lost sight of each other. And despite wandering around within a mile of each other, they never made contact again.  And then the Bolivians captured Regis Dubrais, a Che wannabe, and another Marxist. Their debrief led to an ambush near a river. and when the smoke cleared, Tamara Bunke was dead, and Guevera was down to one column.

He headed up into the mountains, but now, the peasants' hands [and mouths] were turned against him. The intel they furnished was solid and timely. Guevera, the high priest of world revolution, the leading intellectual of guerilla warfare, walked into an ambush.

The Bolivian Rangers smashed up Guevera's column. and after they wounded the great man himself, Guevera put up his hands, yelling, "Don't shoot. I'm Che. I'm worth more to you alive". As with so many other things, he was wrong.  the next day, despite protests from CIA and Green Beret personnel on the scene, and in La Paz, Guevera was executed by a Bolivian solider. Karma's a bitch. Ten with his hands cut off for ID, he was buried in a secret grave [he was turned over to the Cubans later]

Safely dead, Castro could celebrate Guevera as a martyr of the Revolution, and bury him in Cuba. Guevera then went on to his second life as a t-shirt for semi-literate Americans, and an inspiration to insipid coffee houseRevolutionaries.

But what he, really. He was a brutal psychopath even his friends and allies came to fear. He was a failed guerilla chief. Cpt. Kangaroo could have beaten Batista. Che failed in the congo. He failed spectacularly in Bolivia.

Che was not the best of Castro's field commanders. But he was one of, if not the most, murderous of the lot, and the most fanatical. He deserves neither the mythology, the worship, nor the accolades. He was a thug who got what he deserved. death in the mountains.

Fresh over his triumph at Stamford Bridge against his brother Tostig and Harold Haadrada, Harold Godwinson, Anglo-Saxon king of England hurried his army south to meet an invasion of England from another direction, the south. To be more precise the Dukedom of Normandy, on the northern coast of France.

It was in Normandy, that in earlier times, Edward the Confessor, childless, and Harold's predecessor, supposedly promised William, duke of Normandy, that he would be Edward's successor to the English throne upon Edward's death. But the Witenagamot, the advisory council to the English throne, chose Harold Godwinson, instead. William prepared to enforce his claim to the throne militarily, and gathered an army of some 7,000 men and the ships to carry them to England.

His progress was then delayed by adverse winds form the north. but the delay worked to his advantage. Harold, who was waiting for him, was forced to disengage and march northeast when he learned of the landing of Haadrada and Tostig. and while he was so embroiled, the winds changed, and William landed at Pevsney. By the time Godwinson marched south, William was moving north. They met near Hastings, at Senlac Hill.

In a sense the two military organizations were an antithesis. the Saxons relied on a largely infantry levy, and fought in a shieldwall of heavy infasntry, a formation adopted against the Vikings, and a formation the abncient Greeks and romans would have recognized. On the other hand, William, a third generation Viking, had an army that relied on heavy cavalry [although it also comprised infantry and missile [crossbow and bow] troops.

The position favored Harold. He, and his shield wall were on top of a ridge, William below. so William's troops had to charge up the hill, while Harold's only had to hold formation [horses would not attack a massed infantry formation]. But on one of the charges, the cavalry either feigned a retreat, or demonstrated some panic in a real retreat, because Harold's infantry broke formation, and charged after them down the hill.

At that point, the cavalry turned, slaughtered their pursuers, and began to break the remainder of the shield wall. William's other troops advanced and joined the melee. And it was at that point that Harold, fighting among his men was killed, reportedly by an arrow through the eye. The Norman horse then pursued the fleeing Saxons as they fled the battlefield.

On Christmas Eve, 1066, William of Normandy was crowned King of England. Anglo-Saxon rule was over.

He is probably the least know, but ablest of the major Apache war chiefs. And while his skill at warfare [and cruelty] was legendary, he initially, at least tried to avoid war with the United States. He has been a major figure in books, movies and TV shows [ e.g. "Hondo" and has been portrayed by one actor, Michael Pate at least four or more times. The name he is known to us by is Victorio.

Victorio was a Chiricahua Apache, from the Warm Springs, or Ojo Caliente band. And the Warm Springs Apache were famed for their attachment to the valley [and the Springs] that gave them their name. It met all their needs, and they seldom wandered far from it.

Victorio came to manhood in the 1840s and 1850s. Like most apache, he hated Mexicans, and learned his Warcraft fighting them, and to a lesser degree, the Americans who showed up in New Mexico during and after the Mexican War. And as a sub-chief of Mangas Coloradus, Victorio fought in Cochise' war against the United states until Cochise made peace in 1872.

It appears that Victorio was more than ready for peace with the Americans. His people were, once again, contentedly ensconced in their homeland, and Victorio, who had received the mantle of leadership of the Chihenne Chiricahua after the murder of Mangas Coloradus, was more than willing to settle into reservation life at Ojo Caliente. But there was a fly in the ointment. and his name was John Clum.

John Clum was an Indian agent [and later publisher of the TOMBSTONE EPITAPH]. And as an Indian agent, Clum's success was measured in large part on how many Indian drew rations at the reservation at San Carlos.

San Carlos was already home to bands of Western Apache, such as White mountain, and Tonto Apaches. And despite being the same linguistic stock as the Chiricahua, the Western Apache were their enemies. But since the Chohoken [Cochise's Chiricahua were on a separate reservation, there was little to no conflict. and then Clum ordered the Chihenne to San Carlos.
Victorio didn't want to go. Neither did his people. But they went. And the western apache made sure that the land allotment for Victorio's people was an arid scrap of pestilence. Victorio led his people back to Ojo Caliente, asking for a reservation there. He was ordered back to, and returned to san Carlos. He left again, and went back to the Warm Springs. The third order to move was the charm. Victorio and over 100 of his men opted for war.

They set the frontier ablaze, from New Mexico and Arizona to western Texas [where Victorio added a sizable number of Mescalero apaches to his war band], and old Mexico.They raided ranches and farms, ambushed stage coaches. killed single individuals they came across [such as sheep herders and cowboys], and most importantly, fought the armies of the United States and Mexico to a standstill.

Victorio was a brilliant tactician. He invariably chose a fighting position that was exceptionally difficult for an opponent to flank, and which always had a back way out. He used wide ranging scouts and flank guards to avoid surprise, and could be exceptionally devious. He once lured a pursuing party of civilians into a canyon, and opened fire on them from the other side of the canyon floor, pinning the pursuers behind boulders on the canyon floor from which they returned fire. Unfortunately for them, Victorio had other warriors positioned on the ridge above and behind them, who killed them all while they were trapped. Several days later a relief party found, and buried the bodies, when they were taken under fire and killed, the Apaches having remained on the rim awaiting them.

By 1880, Victorio was feeling the pressure. Fully 1/4 of the Unites States Army was pursuing him. And so were the Mexicans. But Victorio's attempts to re-cross the border into Texas were thwarted by the 10th U.S. cavalry [Buffalo soldiers], under the command of Col. Benjamin Grierson, who defnded the few available waterholes, and drove Victorio away at Rattlesnake Springs.

Unable to find water, and with the U.S. Army closing in, Victorio fled back to Mexico with the U.S. Calvary in close pursuit. In accordance with treaty, the U.S. troopers crossed into Mexico, driving Victorio toward Mexican and Tarahumari Indians working for the Mexicans.

Victorio holed up at Tres Casillos, a series of there hills. But Tres Castillos had no back way out. While raiding parties under Nana [with Victorio's sister, Lozen], and Chiuahua  were out raiding, the Mexicans, having found Victorio, ordered the American troops back across the border [being unwilling to share the glory], and attacked.

The Mexicans claimed an Indian named Mauricio killed Victorio in the ensuing battle. Apache tradition had Victorio committing suicide with a knife when he, and the last 11 of his men, ran out of ammunition. However he died, Victorio, the reluctant scourge of three states and two countries was dead.

What happened to his family?

Thank you....love it t-shirt icon. Is it true he came from a wealthy family? Something to do with yachts?

His wife and son were left alone, and wound up being looked out for by the Allies. His wife Lucy [Her maiden name was Lucia Molin - Italian descent] lived to a fairly old age, and died of natural causes. Their son, Manfred went into politics and became Mayor of Stuttgart. He never married and died childless.

but as Paul Harvey might say, ..."and now the rest of the story".

Long before he met Luci, 2d Lt. Rommel had an affair with a flower girl. But in the then German Army he couldn't marry her because he had insufficient funds to support her and a family, and he required his commanding officer's permission to marry.

They had a daughter out of wedlock, and Rommel supported her [and acknowledged her] all his life. Lucy knew about her, and she spent a great deal of time with the family. It appears the scarf one sees in pictures of Rommel during the war was knitted by her for him. She went on , in adulthood to marry, and she had a son. So Rommel has a grandson [I don't know if he has any great-grandchildren].

His family was [at least] comfortably middle class. They had five or six kids [including Che], and in Argentina, that took some coin. but I don't know how they earned their living.

Thanks. Will see if I can find the source of where I got that info.

He had been the field commander of parts, or all of the British Army during the Revolution. He had fought in New York, New Jersey, and throughout the South; indeed leading the southern campaign after Clinton returned to New York. But on October 19, 1781, Lord Cornwallis' area of operations was limited to the immediate vicinity of Yorktown Virginia, and Gloucester Point across the York River.

But Cornwallis, who had moved to Yorktown to take advantage of the royal Navy's command of the seas to communicate with Clinton in New York, and to open a passage for supply and reinforcement had erred. A French naval squadron under Admiral De Grasse had wrested control of the immediate area from the British, and blockaded Cornwallis from the sea. A Patriot army under Lafayette had blockaded him in from the land. And a combined army under George Washington and the French general Rochambeau had slipped away from New York [and Clinton] and reinforced Lafayette. The British, now trapped, were put under siege, and on October 19th, the writing was on the wall. A drummer boy beat a tattoo, and a British officer , bearing a white flag appeared.

Cornwallis himself missed the surrender. The ceremony was handled by his deputy, Gen. O'Hara. The British troops marched between lines of Continentals, militia and French, throwing, with great force in some cases, their weapons onto the ground. A British band played a tune allegedly written by Gen. Burgoyne, called "The World Turned Upside Down" [the Americans purportedly played "Yankee Doodle"]. O'Hara then attempted to surrender Cornwallis' sword to Rochambeau. Rochambeau directed him to Washington. A second attempt ended when Washington, in turn, directed O'Hara to American General Benjamin Lincoln, who the British had humiliated and refused to the honors of war to at Savannah. Lincoln took the sword.

Cornwallis surrendered over 7,000 men, all their equipment, and a small naval contingent under his command. He also surrendered the British troops at Gloucester. And while the negotiations dragged on, and the fighting continued in America, for all extents and purposes, the war was over. Peace was ratified in less than two years. The world had, indeed, turned upside down.

He had started the campaign less than six months before, with an army in excess of 500,000 men from all over Western Europe: French, Germans, Poles, Dutch, Portuguese, Italians. He had fought one major battle, marched hundreds of miles, and taken the enemy's temporary capitol, Moscow.

But while he dithered there, waiting for a peace embassy that never came, the weather began to worsen. then, mysterious fires burned large parts of Moscow down. and with winter having arrived, on October 19th, 1812, Napoleon abandoned Moscow, and began withdrawing [retreating] back to the west.

Bonaparte's original plan was to move southwest, into Ukraine, and march out that way. but the Russian army appeared to his front, and for reasons known only to himself, Napoleon declined battle, moved northwest, and began his retreat toward Smolensk, Minsk, and eventually, Poland. It was a mistake.

Napoleonic, and indeed, most armies lived off the land when they campaigned, to one degree or another. The French, however, had raised such foraging to a high art [perhaps equaled only by Sherman, on his March to the Sea]. That meant, in practical terms, that Napoleon and his Grande Armee were countermarching over ground they had already picked clean - and doing it in the winter.

Without sufficient food, fuel and warm clothing, and relentlessly harassed by Cossacks and Russsian cavalry, the Army marched on, but without their emperor [he had already lit out in a sleigh to get to Paris ahead of the news, and 'spin' the result]. Eventually, the remnants of his army reached safe haven [the last man out, literally, was Marshal Michael Ney]. But Napoleon had lost over 80% of his men, and much of his equipment. But the loss with the greatest, and most profound effect on the future, was the losses Napoleon suffered in horses.

the Russian campaign and retreat destroyed Bonaparte's cavalry, and to a degree, his horse artillery. For the campaigns of 1813, 1814, and the hundred Days, Napoleon would labor under the handicap of little or no cavalry. and it would help swing the pendulum against him - for good. 

It was one of those days when it starts off great, then falls apart. And it fell apart big time on Confederate LTG Jubal Early in the Shenandoah Valley, at a place called Cedar Creek.

Early had been active in the Shenandoah for a good part of the Summer and Fall. He had been detached from the Army of Northern Virginia by Robert e. Lee for the purpose of putting pressure on Grant's army of the Potomac to reinforce Washington, D.C., and relieving pressure on lee.

Early has started, promisingly enough by feinting toward the capital, and then marching into the Valley. And, in a sense, Lee got what he wanted. But just not in the way he wanted. Grant sent Phil Sheridan, with an army of his own, to settle matters in the Shenandoah for good. Sheridan's orders were to raze the Valley so badly [it was Lee's chief source of provender], that 'if a crow wanted to fly over the Valley, he'd have to carry his own provisions'.

Sheridan then fought a series of battles with Early, generally winning them, and put the Valley to the torch.

But on October 19th, Sheridan was on his way to Grant, and unbeknownst to him, Early was in the neighborhood, planning an attack on Sheridan's army.

Early caught the Union troops unaware, and unprepared, just as they were cooking breakfast. Surprise was complete, and the Rebels carried the field, and drove deeply into the union positions. But then the attack started to break down. Many of the Confederates stopped to eat the Union breakfasts, since they were hungry, underfed and exhausted from the approach  march. Additionally, due to the complexity of Early's attack plan, not all his troops arrived on the battlefield as a cohesive force. So as the morning wore on the attack slowed, then stopped, with many of the Confederate troops looting Union positions. And despite the urging of his subordinates, particularly MG John B. Gordon, Early made no effort to renew the attack.

The Union troops took advantage of the lull to straighten their lines, and redeploy. then, in the afternoon, Sheridan, appeared. Having heard the sounds of battle that morning, he had returned, rallying fleeing troops as he did so. And then he attacked.

The Confederates were caught virtually flatfooted. And while the Union Infantry attacked them from the front, Sheridan's cavalry, led by Wesley Merritt and George Armstrong Custer, attacked them from their left front. In one of the few instances it happened in the civil War, the union cavalry charge broke the rebel infantry. Early's army fled the battlefield, routed. For all extents and purposes, after the cavalry broke off the pursuit the war in the Shenandoah was over.  And in six months, Lee's war would be over too.

Thank you!  Love your history!!!!!

Thank you for another history lesson!!!

It must have been horrible fighting this war....man to man...sickness, wounds. Weather too.

Charles Arthur 'Pretty Boy' Floyd grew up on an Oklahoma farm, but when times got tough, he turned to robbery as a way of life. his way of life got him in and out of prison [although he escaped when being sent to a 12-15 year stint from a speeding train]. Drifting up to Kansas City, Floyd became involved in the burgeoning gang scene, and began a series of bank robberies across several states. He also attained national prominence when he killed a federal agent.

But Floyd is best remembered for a crime he denied participating in until his dying day, the Kansas City Massacre.

In June, 1933, a small time mobster named Frank Nash was being transported to prison. Nash, disguised with a wig, was being taken to the railroad station for transport. When Nash, and his escorts arrived at the train station, they were met by a hail of machine gun bullets. Nash was killed, with the officers, either because he wasn't recognized because of his disguise [if it was a botched rescue], or because he was the target of a hit [never proven].

But the hue and cry was intense. And 'Pretty Boy' Floyd was fingered as one of the killers, despite his vociferous denials.

J. Edgar Hoover used the Kansas City Massacre to both beef up, and arm the FBI. Floyd, feeling the heat, returned to Oklahoma, where he became known as the 'Robin hood of the Cookson hills'. the locals, with no love of banks [it WAS the Depression], gave him shelter, and protected him. But law enforcement was, again, hot on his tail, and Floyd had to flee.

The end came in a cornfield, at a farm in East Liverpool, Ohio. Floyd had just finished a breakfast [for which he paid the farmer's wife well - she said he was very polite], and fled into the field when the law showed up. It was there he was killed. One of the lawmen involved was Melvin Purvis, who would go on to lead the group that killed John Dillinger.

After his death, Floyd's body was returned to Oklahoma for burial. It was the largest funeral in Oklahoma history.

So who was 'Pretty Boy' Floyd? Despite his apparent likeability, he was a career criminal, a thief, and  a stone cold killer. Floyd was believed to have committed [Kansas City Massacre aside], at least four, and possibly eight murders. He was believed to have killed at least two police officers, and one Federal agent. Pretty on the outside? Maybe. on the inside? Not so much.

If Gaius Cassius Longinus had a 'lean and hungry look', Marcus Junius Brutus was the poster boy for the 'goodness' for Gaius Julius Caesar's assassination. Descended from one of the oldest families in Rome, one of his ancestors had been one of, if not the, prime movers in the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, the last Etruscan King of Rome. So if Brutus chose to wrap himself in the cloak of savior of Rome, the cloak had a certain 'family fit to it.

But Brutus was not all that he has been handed down to us. As a provincial official, Brutus was known for his rapacity. his interest rates on loans would have done a Mafia Don proud. As Caesar himself noted of Brutus, "What he wants, he wants badly" [and despite that Caesar pardoned Brutus, a Pompey adherent, after Pharsalus [possibly because Brutus' mother, Servillia, had been one of Caesar's mistresses (and possibly his favorite)]. But being pardoned in the Roman world, while earning accolades for the pardoner, was seen as a weakness for the pardoned. And that impacted on one's gravitas and honor.

So when Cassius approached Brutus about assassinating Caesar, Brutus was all ears. Killing Caesar would wipe out the shame of being pardoned. It would allow Brutus to emulate, and bask in the reflection of, his ancient ancestor. and on a more noble basis [from Brutus' point of view], it would restore the Republic, which meant the rule of the Senate, the 300 men who had ruled the republic before Hurricane Julius, i.e. families like Brutus'. And that meant the cut throat politics that allowed men like Brutus to rise to the top, without the permission from, or consent of, someone, say like Julius Caesar [who had politically, always been a populist, siding with the Plebs, and the provincials].

And so, on the ides of Masrch, in 44 BC, Brutus joined in the murder of Julius Caesar. and he, Cassius and their friends, the self-labeled 'Liberators' waited for the kudos and the power to come pouring in. they didn't. And within six months, Cassius and Brutus left Rome for the East, having been politically outmaneuvered by Octavian and Antony. And both sides prepared for war.

While awaiting the forces of Octavian and Antony to appear, Cassius and Brutus prepared their own forces [and squeezed the locals for cash and supplies on a grand scale].

To no avail. At Philippi, Cassius was crushed when brought to battle, and then committed suicide. Brutus, nearby, was then engaged, and beaten in turn. Brutus fled the field with several companions. And then, before the forces of his enemies could capture him, Brutus took his own life.

So what can we make of Brutus? Idealist? More than Cassius, certainly. But Brutus acted against Caesar not only out of principle but pique. Caesar was not moving his career along quickly enough. And as a Senator of Rome, Brutus chafed at Caesar having any say in his career at all. Neither Brutus, nor Cassius were considered for Caesar's coming campaign against Parthia. Neither was going to be consul that year. And neither, therefore, was in line to line his pockets, and gain legion loyalty, from such a proconsulship.

More seriously, Brutus failed to realize, as Caesar had, that the roman Republic as Brutus knew it, and wanted returned, was dead. It had been dying since Sulla. It was on its deathbed with the First Triumvirate. and it wasn't coming back. And by the time the smoke cleared from Philippi, and the war that followed between Octavian and Antony, the Republic was in its grave. Brutus may have delayed it. But in the end, he helped kill it. 

Italy had opened WW I by refusing to fight with her erstwhile Central Powers allies, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Instead, she jumped in on the Allied side, after dickering for Austrian territory as the price of her  entry into the war. And that entry produced little but oddities. Benito Mussolini, one of Europe's leading Socialists, broke with his party, and joined the Italian Army. And that army launched a series of offensives in the same place eleven times [the Isonzo River]. The Italians were defeated in each of those offensives, suffering heavy losses while they did so. but the Austro-Hungarians lost heavily as well. So heavily in fact, that the German Army intervened and sent seven divisions to help the Austrians launch an offensive of their own. and even though the Italians spotted the reinforcements coming, and adopted a defensive position and strategy, they were still caught flatfooted when the Germans and Austrians attacked.

the Isonzo front was located in very mountainous terrain, so some of the units the Germans sent were the mountain troops of the Alpine [Mountain] Corps, including mountain battalions from both the Bavarian and Wurttemburg Army. And one of the officers in the latter battalion was a lieutenant named Erwin Rommel [one of the officers in the Bavarian contingent was future Field Marshal Ferdinand Schoerner].

Rommel had started the war in France, where he had been wounded at least twice. Known for his aggressiveness and preference for movement, Rommel was selected to serve in Wurttemurbg's Mountain Battalion. It proved to be an inspired choice, because Rommel never served in France again during the First World war. He spent the rest of the war in Rumania and Italy, where a war of maneuver was in full flow, and trench warfare was largely ignored.

Rumania was a blitzkrieg in all but name. Led by the former head of the German General Staff, Gen. Falkenhayn, the Germans rolled over the Rumanians, and knocked them out of the war in short order [with an assist from Bulgaria]. And Rommel's battalion played a significant role in that victory. they were then transferred to Italy - and the Isonzo.

Gen. Cardona, the Italian commander, and 'architect' of the eleven offensives that failed, now sought to use the terrain to his advantage on the defense. And the lynchpin of the front was Mt. Matajur. the Germans and Austrians knew it. In fact, a Pour La Merite, the 'Blue Max' was promised to whoever was first up the mountain.

Rommel by now had such a solid reputation that his commander basically made him field commander of the battalion. and with a reinforced company, Rommel set out for the mountain, and the Blue Max.

Rommel, as was his practice, used his machine gun section to blow a hole in Italian lines, and then moved through those holes at speed, while constantly maneuvering up the mountains he faced on his way to Matajur. and finally reaching that mountain, Rommel stormed it, capturing some 9,000 Italian troops and well over 50 Italian generals. And with Matajur in german hands, the rest of the German/Austrian Army poured through. By mid- November, the Central Powers had advanced some 60 miles, and were within striking distance of Venice. And Italian losses were in the neighborhood of three quarters of a million. It was a catastrophe on a scale seldom seen in WW I. It was so bad that British and French reinforcements were required to stop the Germans and stabilize the front.

Cardona was relieved. his successor, Diaz, relied heavily on the allied contingent, and refrained from the offensive for a year.

And the Pour la Merite? It was awarded to Ferdinand Schoerner, who had been first up the mountain in front of Matajur. Rommel was not amused, and complained all the way up the chain of command. And eventually, in a post office in northern Italy, he, and his commander both received the Blue Max -by mail.

Caporetto was a major Allied defeat. And it introduced the world to Erwin Rommel, and the style of warfare he would perfect in France in 1940, and wield with an artist's touch in North Africa in a little over twenty years.

Their name came from the typhoons that destroyed two fleets and ended any hopes the Mongols had of conquering Japan [although the Japanese themselves did not call their suicide pilots 'Kamikaze'. the name was a western invention]. But Kamikaze is what they are known by, and they began operations around the Philippines on this date in 1944.

By October, 1944, things were looking bleak for the Empire of Japan. As part of the naval operations that resulted in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, Japan had sacrificed the last of her aircraft carriers in a decoy operation. she had also lost one of her 'super' battleships [IJS MUSASHI], as well as other battleships and cruisers, which meant that aside from surface vessels, capable of projecting power only in their immediate vicinity, Japan had lost the ability to protect land based troops from allied attack.

What Japan had plenty of was land based aircraft. And the Japanese military being a death cult anyway, it didn't take long for the Japanese to come up with the tactic of flying planes into Allied ships [In fairness to the Japanese, the Nazis tried the same thing, on a more limited scale toward the end of the war in Europe]. They had the planes to spare, and while the highly skilled pilots of 1941-1943 were mostly dead, flying a one way mission allowed pilots with rudimentary skills to possibly achieve significant damage to the Allies.

And the Kamikaze did. Off the Philippines and later, Okinawa, the Kamikaze took a major toll on American [and to a lesser degree, British] shipping. And the Japanese expanded the program. They developed a flying missile [the "Baka" bomb], and suicide speed boats, and one man subs. They even sent IJS YAMATO, the last 'super' battleship, on a one way mission to Okinawa [she never made it]. They began training civilians on the home islands to use bamboo spears against American ground troops.

It never came to that. Fearing the potential casualties of operating in Japanese home waters, and from a land invasion of Japan, the U.S. opted for the atomic bomb to force Japan's surrender. Coupled with the soviet invasion of Manchuria, it worked.

During their period of operation, over 1,300 Japanese planes crashed into American ships. During that period over 5,000 Japanese pilots lost their lives. Hundreds of [mostly] American ships were sunk. And the effort delayed the allies not a whit. It was a waste of men and material in a senseless orgy of destruction for little purpose. And it was so very Japanese.

It was a win, based on another man's plans [without giving him any credit] that signaled, in the words of Churchill, the end of the beginning. And it took place at a dusty railroad stop west of Alexandria, Egypt, called El Alamein.

El Alamein was God's answer to British inability to wage maneuver warfare. It was the position Rommel couldn't flank, anchored on the north by the Mediterranean sea, and on the south by the trackless waste of the Quattara Depression. And its significance was not lost on Gen. sir Claude Auchinleck, who had taken direct command of Eighth Army from Lt. Ge. Neil Ritchie after the debacle of Gazala/ Tobruk. Forced to fall back into Egypt, after horrific tank losses, Auchinleck regrouped at El Alamein, and began fortifying a defensive line anchored on a series of terrain features, most importantly, Rusewait ridge.

And there he stopped, for the first time, Rommel's Panzergruppe Afrika. Exhausted, equipment worn out, the Germans tried the usual flank movement on their right. But the space was finite, and the British stopped them.

Then, two things happened. Rommel was recalled to Europe for medical treatment. and Auchinleck was relieved of command during a visit by Churchill. Auchinleck was not to Churchill's taste [he was an Indian Army man]. Nor was he one of the Chief of the IGS, Alan Brooke's acolytes. So the "Auk" got the chop, and Bernard Law Montgomery got Eighth Army [and a ton of re-supply, including large numbers of Sherman tanks]. And the Germans? They dug in behind a series of minefields so vast they were called the 'Devil's Garden', put their panzers in reserve, sighted their 88s, and waited.

They didn't have to wait long. In October, Monty launched 'Lightfoot'. It failed but barely [the fact that the acting Panzerarmee commander, Georg Stumme died of a heart attack at the front didn't help], with the British trapped in the minefields, losing their sense of direction, and German superior tactical skill.

And while both sides caught their breath, Rommel returned. Monty now sought to draw out the Panzers by attacking the Italians when he could. He then launched 'Supercharge'. Having concentrated his forces to the north, he bludgeoned his way west. And despite destroying a significant number of British tanks, Rommel was still faced with 800 to his less than 100. And then he received one of Adolf Hitler's stand or die orders. He halted his already undertaken retreat for 24 hours, and then abandoning any idea of standing and dying, he retreated, initially, to Fuka.

The British, having gained control of the battlefield, stopped to capture the mostly Italian 'leg' infantry Rommel was forced to abandon as a result of Hitler's order, and the Italian inability to get a 'jump' on retreating. The British also stopped to regroup and resupply, a practice that became both synonymous with Montgomery, and an excuse for the British failure to close with and defeat the Germans in battle.

'Supercharge' was the first major defeat inflicted on the Germans by the allies in WW II. It drove them from Egypt, and eventually Libya. But it did not result in the destruction of the Axis forces in North Africa. Far from it. Rommel conducted a masterful, and on of the longest sustained retreats in military history. the Axis, instead of pulling their veteran Italian and German troops out of Africa, reinforced them in Tunisia [where the Allied landings in Algeria and Morocco had made 'Supercharge' unnecessary]. But, as Churchill said, it was the end of the beginning.

He was one of New York's most famous gamblers. Although he publicly denied it, by all accounts he fixed the 1919 World Series. He was also one of America's first big time bootleggers, a loan shark, the organizer of one of America's first organized criminal operations, and a mentor to Lucky Luciano and Meyer Lansky. His name was Arnold Rothstein, and on this date in 1928, he was shot at a poker game in a New York hotel. He was found near the hotel's service entrance. His blood trail led back to the game.

Rothstein had been a numbers whiz since childhood. so gambling and loansharking came easily to him. And by 1919, he was in a position, via an associate, to buy off enough of the heavily favored White Sox to have the heavily favored Sox lose the Series. Rothstein made a killing.

But that killing was nothing compared to the fortune Rothstein made importing liquor from Canada once Prohibition started. Rothstein's liquor, being legally bottled in Canada, was far superior to the rotgut and bathtub gin being produced in New York. and while expensive to buy and ship to New York [Rothstein had his own fleet of 'rum runners'], the quality of his booze commanded the highest prices [And Rothstein had the cash to buy in bulk]..

Rothstein put together a Triple A All Star gang of criminals to run the operation. The 'shop foreman' was Jack "Legs" Diamond. The 'help' included a young Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, and Lepke Buchalter, with Rothstein mentoring all three.

One of the other gamblers, who Rothstein had welched on a 20 grand plus poker loss, was tried for Rothstein's killing, and acquitted [He had invited Rothstein to the game he was killed at]. No one else was ever arrested or tried for the crime. The police seemed to have ignored the possibly it was a criminally related murder. So New York's greatest gambler, and first real crime lord, went out with a bang, and without making a whimper.

He was a wunderkind at West Point. He was sent as an observer to the Crimean War. He invented the saddle used by the U.S.  Cavalry well after the Civil War. He then left the army, and became a railroad president. But when the Civil War began, George Brinton McClellan returned to the colors.

And initially, he had great success. Posted to what is now West Virginia [which had seceded from Virginia], McClellan faced off against, and beat Robert E. Lee, also in his first command. McClellan's success led Lincoln to call him to Washington, and put him in command of what would become known as the Army of the Potomac.

McClellan took the flotsam and jetsam of Bull run, as well as new volunteers, and forged an effective military force. And if McClellan had been left in charge of a training command, he might well be remembered differently these days.

But McClellan commanded the army he had built in the field, and it was there he failed miserably, even when he won.

McClellan's first operation was the Peninsular Campaign. Rather than face off against the Confederates frontally, between Washington and Richmond, McClellan used one of his aces, the U.S. Navy's dominance, to move his army to the Peninsula, flanking the Rebels. He succeeded in surprising them. And if he had moved with alacrity, he might well have been in Richmond, or been, at least, in its environs, before any major rebel force. But speed and McClellan were natural enemies. And as he plodded up the Peninsula, stopping at every rear guard the Rebels put up [see Williamsburg], the Confederates reacted quickly, and decisively. Gen. Joseph Johnson moved the bulk of his forces from up near Bull Run to the endangered area. Stonewall Jackson was recalled from the Shenandoah Valley to join the main Army. And in what became known as 'The Seven Days Battle', first Johnson, then Robert E. Lee [who replaced the former after he was wounded in action], drove McClellan back [the Rebels having surmised McClellan' right wing was in the air courtesy of JEB Stuart's ride around the Army of the Potomac], despite being outnumbered by him [McClellan had the ability to multiply hypothetical enemy numbers in his head by a factor of ten. and then believe they were real]. He was aided in this idiocy by Alan Pinkerton, serving with the Army.

McClellan avoided complete disaster only because Jackson, perhaps exhausted after the Shenandoah, and the march to the Peninsula was lethargic, and because McClellan wound up at the base of the Peninsula in an imposing defensive position - Malvern Hill.

Lee, being Lee, attacked Malvern hill. but his plan was overly complicated, and the Union artillery, their best arm, mowed the Confederates down like ten pins as they attacked up the hill [a lesson unlearned by both the Union [Fredericksburg], and Lee [Gettysburg].

McClellan withdrew to lick his wounds and reorganize. And while he did, his relationship with Lincoln soured. McClellan was openly contemptuous of his Commander in chief [he called him "the Gorilla"], and openly rude to him. Yet Lincoln put up with it because McClellan's troops idolized him [Custer had a portrait of McClellan in his office at Ft. Abraham Lincoln - along with his own], and McClellan could train troops.

But Lincoln wasn't blind, either. He began siphoning units away from McClellan and transferring them to John Pope's Army of Virginia. Yet when Lee ambushed Pope at Second Manassas, McLellan refused to do anything to aid him. and whatever Lincoln though about that, he had no recourse but to relieve Pope, and put McClellan back in command when Lee invaded Maryland [to the delirious joy of McClellan's troops].

Lee's invasion was curious. Ostensibly to encourage [and arm] pro-Southern Marylanders, Lee invaded WESTERN Maryland, the most pro-Union part of the state. Recruitment went nowhere. Lee went to Antietam Creek, where he split his army [sending Jackson to the rear to take Harper's Ferry], while he prepared to defend against McClellan.

McClellan had several advantages. He heavily outnumbered Lee's remaining troops on the ground. He had pushed Lee's troops over a much more advantageous defensive position at South Pass. And he happened to have a copy of Lee's plans and orders recovered by Union troops wrapped around some cigars.

And while Lee wound up retreating from Antietam Creek after the battle, he did not do so immediately. And the battle itself was hardly a victory for McClellan. He moved so slowly, and so unimaginatively, that Lee not only stopped him, but Jackson made it back to the battle. And at least one Corps of the Army of the Potomac was never committed to the fight. Considering he had been reading the other fellow's mail, it was a lackluster performance at best.

And still Lincoln refused to relieve him -yet. But when McClellan failed to pursue Lee, demonstrated no intention to do, and refused Lincoln's orders  to do so, the camel's back was broken. Lincoln relieved McClellan. He would never command troops again.

And when word of the relief reached the Army of the Potomac, there were no demonstrations of anger or outrage. As McClellan rode by units of his Army, there were no cheers, nor demonstrations of affection, as there had been in the past. Even his troops knew by then, that Little Mac was not the man to lead them to victory.

And in the short run, there were none to do so. McClellan was succeeded by Burnside [Fredericksburg], and Hooker [Chancellorsville], before George Gordon Meade became the last commander of the Army of the Potomac. But it would be a Western import, U.S. Grant, who would finally lead the Army of the Potomac to final victory over Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia.

And McClellan? He went on to run against Abraham Lincoln, the man he despised, as the Democratic candidate for President in 1864. And Little Mac not only lost, but their ballots showed his old creation, the Army of the Potomac, had voted overwhelmingly for Abraham Lincoln.

He was born in the oil rich provinces of the southern Russian Empire to a German engineer and a Russian woman. His family moved back to Germany where he grew up and was educated. In 1914, he volunteered for the German Army and was seriously wounded in action later on in the war. A committed nationalist when the war started, by 1919 he was a member of the German communist Party. By 1924 he was in the soviet Union. By 1926 he was an agent of the Red Army's GRU [military intelligence. His name was Richard Sorge.

Sorge was sent back to Germany, and like the latterly recruited Cambridge 5, was told to sever all ties with communist parties, fronts and friends. Taking up the profession of journalist, Sorge then traveled around Europe, and the U.S., sending intelligence evaluations, mostly on the political scene to the U.S.S.R. He also traveled to China, making contact with Chinese Communists while ostensibly reporting on agriculture. And it was then that he first began to look into the Japanese involvement in china, because with the conquest of Manchuria, Japan now had a common border with the soviet union on mainland Asia.

Sorge was ordered to Japan, and using his journalistic cover, as well as his NSDAP membership [1933], he got an assignment there as a reporter.

Fluent in Japanese, Sorge made himself nigh on indispensable to the German Embassy, furnishing evaluations of Japanese politics, even writing up Embassy reports to the Reich [he was also sleeping with the Ambassador's wife - with the ambassador's knowledge]. At the same time, Sorge built up ring of agents. They included a Japanese- American, a European radio operator, and a close associate of the Japanese Prime Minister. These assets allowed the Soviets to obtain vital intelligence on the military intentions of the Japanese toward the Soviet Union.

It was Sorge's intelligence that convinced Stalin he could withdraw troops from the Far East because Japan did not plan an invasion, despite two border incidents in 1938 and 1939.

But Sorge's greatest 'gift' was forewarning Stalin of Hitler's intent to launch BARBAROSSA in 1941. While authorities are split as to whether Sorge gave Stalin the exact date of the attack [some say the closet he got was June the 20th, 1941], Sorge accurately furnished intelligence on the size of the invading force. Unfortunately, Stalin, for whatever reason, refused to believe Sorge's reports [as he did warnings from Churchill, and the U.S.A.]. So BARBAROSSA came as a far greater surpise than it should have to the Red Army units on the western border of the U.S.S.R.

But Sorge was running out of time. The Abwehr was suspicious of him. An SS Colonel was sent to Tokyo to investigate him Sorge fooled them both. Bu the Japanese Kempetai was not fooled, and using radio interception, they got his radio operator. And then they got him.

Sorge was arrested in October, 1941. Tthe soviets denied any knowledge of his existence. He broke under torture, and confessed everything. The Soviets refused a Japanese proposed spy swap. On November 7, 1944, he was hanged. And the man who had devoted himself to Soviet Communism, who had died for them, was not acknowledged by them for some forty years after his passing.

Thanks PzLdr. Another wonderful history lesson. Geeze 20k in the 20's was a massive amount of cash. $279,112.14 in today's dollars.

Born in Switzerland, a citizen of Louisiana, Henry Wirz was a Captain in the Confederate Army. And after a career that focused largely on prisoners of war [warden, supervising prisoner paroles exchanges, prisoner transport], Wirz wound up as the Commandant of Camp Sumter. History calls it Andersonville.

Wirz could not have assumed command of Andersonville at a worse time. The Union stopped the exchange of prisoners when the south refused to countenance paroling Black union troops [it was also a way to make further inroads into the replenishment of Southern manpower]. The South was losing the war on all fronts, and soon Sherman would be marching to the Sea [Stoneman tried a cavalry raid toward Andersonville, but it failed]. Andersonville, built to house 10,000 prisoners, held over three times that number. Discipline was draconian. Anyone who crossed a deadline was shot by the guards. Food and medicine were closer to non-existent then inadequate. The only water available to the prisoners was a stream that ran through the camp. and its resultant use as a water source, as well as a toilet, led to raging dysentery and other diseases. Prisoners died like flies.

Wirz was also largely indifferent to the situation 'inside the wire', although he allowed the prisoners to try, and sentence, fellow prisoners who had organized into gangs to rob, and kill fellow prisoners. and Wirz carried out the sentences they imposed.

But so many died at Andersonville [malnourished escapees made it to Sherman's Army, and the ensuing anger played a part in the havoc reaked on Georgia], that someone had to pay. And that 'someone' was Wirz. After 100+ witnesses and two months, Wirz was convicted of conspiracy to injure Union prisoners, and sentenced to death.

Wirz was hanged on this date in 1865. He was the only figure from either side to meet that fate for mistreating prisoners. Indeed, he was the only man charged with it.

Today is the birthday of the United states Marine Corps. doing the job since 1775. Happy Birthday from an old 'Treadhead'! And many more! ;D ;D ;D

CPT ARMOR
MACV 1971

IMJIN SCOUT
1968 - 1969

His grandfather and great uncle served the confederacy. one was killed by union troops in the Shenandoah Valley. As a child, he knew John Singleton Mosby. He served as an aide to Black Jack Pershing during the campaign to capture Pancho Villa, and killed one of Villa's lieutenants in a personal gunfight [it didn't hurt that his sister was Pershing's mistress]. He was probably the most experienced Armor officer to come out of WW I [as a Colonel]. and he went on to become the most celebrated American general of WW II. He was George S. Patton, "Old Blood and Guts" of ivory handled pistol fame. and he was born on November 11, 1885.

Patton was larger than life from his cadet days. He designed a cavalry sword the Army adopted. As a general he designed a uniform for tank troops dubbed the "Green Hornet". He was almost the ultimate arbiter of U.S. armor theory and equipment in WW II [to the Army's detriment. Patton came down heavily in favor of continued production of the M4 Sherman, over the heavier, better armored, better gunned Pershing, resulting in much heavier tank and crew losses, due to the M4's inferiority to every German tank from the Mark IV, long barreled 75 on up].

Yet he was the General the Germans feared most [he was the only Allied general whose army appeared on German situation maps under his name, instead of a number]. And that fear was warranted. Handicapped with the lackluster Courtney Hodges, and the predictable Bernard Montgomery, George Patton put the 'drive' in allied drive. It was Patton who blitzkrieged through France. It was Patton who saved Eisenhower's bacon in the Bulge. And it was Patton who, killed in an accident in the war's aftermath, still stands guard, among the men of his beloved Third Army, in a U.S. cemetery in Luxemburg.

Faced with Confederates gnawing at his supply lines, and having to commit thousands of troops to defend against their depredations, William Tecumseh Sherman considered his next move after the capture of Atlanta. and the decision he made was revolutionary in an Army trained on Jomini's principles of lines of supply. Sherman decided to abandon his line of supply, split his army, and take the smaller half on a stroll across Georgia to the Sea [Savannah, to be accurate]

Sherman did so, because he was seeking to destroy the southern will to fight by proving a Union Army could go anywhere it wanted to in the deep South, and because it would enable him to deny Lee reinforcements, and to possibly cause desertions from Lee's Army

And once Lincoln's election to his second term was secure, Sherman put his plan into action. He culled all but the fittest of his Army, and sent them to Nashville and MG George Thomas to deal with John Bell hood and the Army of Tennessee. He loaded limited supplies on wagons, and burned down Atlanta's commercial section. And then at the head of 60,000 men, Sherman disappeared into the Georgia interior.

But Sherman wasn't wandering around on a walkabout. He had studied Georgia census reports and tax reports, which showed where, in, and around, the line of march, the richest areas for provender were. And he used his 'bummers' to re-supply the Army on its line of march when the supplies ran out. He also chose lines of advance that allowed him to attack two targets of equal, or near equal worth. And he usually drove through the objective more lightly defended.

Sherman fought almost no battles on the March to the Sea. But he did burn contraband and anything of military value to the confederacy. And the impact on the civilian populace was beyond measure. Georgians began to desert from Lee's Army of Northern Virginia when they received news from home of Sherman.

Sherman arrived near Savannah in December, and in cooperation with the Navy and other Union forces, took it, wiring to Lincoln that it was a Christmas present, and "fairly won".

Sherman had ripped the guts out of the deep South, and destroyed the will to fight of many of its people [Georgia Governor Joe Brown proposed seceding from the Confederacy and re-joining the Union]. He would go on to wreak even greater destruction on South Carolina, the birthplace of secession, after Savannah, when he turned north, on his way through the Carolinas to the rear of Robert E. Lee's  army.

And William T. Sherman ushered in modern war. The only thing missing were columns of panzers and tanks. and Sherman's method of war is with us still.   

He was the Viscount of Alamein, Knight of the Garter, field Marshal of the British Empire, and probably the most overrated general of WW II, Mark Clark excepted.

Montgomery was born into an Anglo-Irish family. He graduated from Sandhurst, and applied for service with the Indian Army, which rejected him. He served bravely in WW I, was wounded, and posted to a staff position for the rest of the War.

Montgomery spent a great many of the inter-war years as an instructor and staff officer, with occasional troop rotations. He also was fortunate to become one of General Alan Brooke's acolytes. Brook, already seen as one of Britain's best generals, kept a list [much like George Marshall] of those he saw as 'comers' in the next war. Montgomery was on that list.

WW II saw Montgomery in command of the British 3d Infantry Division in Belgium. He played a major roll in covering the BEF's withdrawal to Dunkirk, and was put in temporary command of IId Corps when its [and his]commander, Alan Brooke was recalled to Britain.

Montgomery, after the Dunkirk withdrawal, commanded the southern sector of England in anticipation of OPERATION SEALION [which never came].

Montgomery's chance came when LTG "Strafer" Gott was killed when his plane was shot down in North Africa. Gott was the Commanding General, 8th Army designate at the time, as a result of Churchill's unwarranted relief of Gen. Sir Claude Auchinleck of command of that Army. Auchinleck had commanded British Forces in north Africa since mid-1941. It was Auchinleck who had inflicted the only defeat up to the end of 1941 on the Afrika Korps [OPERATION CRUSADER].It was Auchinleck who had relieved LTG Neil Ritchie of direct command of 8th Army [and assumed it himself] after the debacle of the Gazala Line and fall of Tobruk. Auchinleck led the retreat into Egypt, reforming his army as he did so.

And it was Auchinleck who selected, and fortified the El Alamein position, and offered battle to Rommel in August. Auchinleck won the first battle of El Alamein, stopping the Germans cold. And then, with Panzerarmee Afrika digging in, Auchinleck was relieved by Churchill. And with Gott dead, the command went to Gen. Bernard Law Montgomery, Brooke's choice for the command from the get go.

Montgomery, soon to be famous as 'Monty', took over Auchinleck's army, replacing many of its seasoned commanders with his own acolytes [a la Brooke], and taking over Auchinkleck's battle plans [while never giving the 'Auk' any credit for them].

The Germans tried another attack on the El Alamein position in September. It failed. Rommel went on sick leave, and Monty built up his forces [Corelli Barnett described Monty as the type of general who took a sledge hammer to crack a walnut] for his own attack.

When the British did attack in October, the acting commander of the Panzerarmee, Gen George Stumme, died of a heart attack on a forward recon, and Rommel was recalled. Over the next month, Rommel stymied the attacks by forces much larger than his own, destroying masses of allied armor in the process. But after  OPERATION SUPERCHARGE the game was up, and the Axis forces began a long retreat across the north African littoral that ended in Tunisia [Rommel disobeying direct orders from both Hitler and Mussolini at various times while doing so].And somehow, in that retreat [one of the longest sustained retreats in modern military history], Montgomery never caught up with Rommel.

By the time Montgomery did catch up, Rommel was behind the Mareth Line [built by the French to confront Mussolini]. And having taken the measure of his man, Rommel took time out while Monty built up his forces and supplies, to attack the American II Corps at Kasserine Pass. An attack on Monty after his return to the Mareth Line was a major failure [Monty knew the plan due to ULTRA intercepts], and Rommel was recalled to Germany, never to return.

Montgomery now joined with the other Allied troops in Tunisia to force the surrender of over 325,000 Axis troops [a far larger haul than Stalingrad], and was tapped to lead the 8th Army in the invasion of Sicily [OPERATION HUSKY]. And it was during HUSKY that the antipathy [which would later escalate to distrust, despising, and almost hatred] by his American compatriots began. First, Montgomery unilaterally altered the invasion plan, giving 8th Army the objective of Messina, the closest beaches to the objective, and making the U.S 7th Army his left flank guard. Then, once ashore, he took over the Americans' main supply route to support his own troops.The result was the legendary race to Messina, won by LTG George S. Patton, and a German withdrawal of virtually all their men and equipment to mainland Italy.

Montgomery next led 8th Army across the Straits of Messina into Italy. But he didn't remain in Italy long. Recalled to Great Britain, Montgomery became involved in the planning of OPERATION OVERLORD, the D-Day invasion. One of Monty's first acts was to take the plan, worked on for two years by LTG Frederick Morgan, and change it. He added two divisions to the invasion [up from three]. the Americans were once again, at least initially, a flank guard [although they subsequently were tasked with taking Cherbourg, a deep water port]. And Montgomery's 21st Army Group had a D-Day objective of seizing the city of Caen.

Montgomery was overall commander until such time as the Supreme commander came ashore, at which time Monty was to revert to Army Group command. That didn't suit Montgomery at all, and a running battle [and open sore] among the Allies was Monty's continual efforts to marginalize Eisenhower, and have himself appointed as Supreme Ground commander.

The D-Day invasion further fractured Montgomery's standing with the Americans. He failed to take Caen on D-Day [he wouldn't take it for over a month], but disingenuous communications with Eisenhower led SHAEF to believe he had.

Monty followed that failure up with a failure to close the trap around the Germans encircled after the failure of their offensive  at Avaranche. He lost some more good will.

Monty's next exercise in futility was OPERATION MARKET-GARDEN, the airborne/ground attack into Holland. It not only cost the allies most of the 1st British Airborne division, as well as other casualties, the fuel and supplies funneled  to Montgomery slowed the rest of the allied forces pushing toward the Reich.

21st Army Group pushed up the coast through France, and into Belgium, liberating the coastal ports [which if not still in German hands were in ruins]. And then Monty got to Antwerp. A major port, Monty seized it. But then he stopped, to pitch Market-Garden, and to again argue he should be appointed Allied Ground Commander. What he didn't do was seize the Scheldte Estuary, the body of water leading to Antwerp from the North Sea from Von Zangen's 15th Army; which made having Antwerp pointless.

And so it continued along until December, when the Germans launched the Battle of the Bulge. They split Bradley's 12th Army Group in half, and drove Bradley, and Courtney Hodges from their headquarters. Eisenhower then slit the front in half. Monty got the north shoulder [and Simpson's 9th Army], Bradley got the south [and a George Patton moving to attack in a northward direction]

And while Patton hustled to Bastogne [he had been overruled on a wide encirclement], Monty moved at his usual glacial pace to begin pressuring the Germans from the north. Since his slowness was expected, even that might have been overlooked, but for the press conference he threw in the battle's aftermath.

It was a virtuoso performance of stupidity. Montgomery all but claimed that he was the sole reason the Allies won the Battle of the Bulge, claiming that 21st AG carried the water for the Americans. It was the proverbial straw. Eisenhower wrote to Marshall, demanding Montgomery, or he [Eisenhower] had to go. Patton and Bradley were livid. It got so bad Churchill had to make a speech in the house of commons praising the Americans. Monty got to stay, but payback's a bitch. Eisenhower stripped him of Simpson's Army. 21st Army group would advance toward Hamburg and the German ports, but its strategic role was to act as Bradley's flank guard. Monty's days in the saddle were over.

Montgomery accepted the surrender of the German forces in northwest Germany, but he was not present at Rheims, nor at Berlin for the major surrender ceremonies that ended the war. He went on the be Chief of the imperial General Staff, with lackluster success, and Deputy Commander of NATO.

So how good a general was he? Overcautious doesn't do him justice [although, to be fair, by the time the British Armies reached Belgium, they were so short of replacements they were cannibalizing their own units]. Monty dropped the ball chasing Rommel in North Africa, in Sicily, at Caen, and at the Scheldte Estuary. He was arrogant, self centered, and parochial. His planning lacked flexibility, anticipation of, and planning for, enemy responses, and reliance, with concomitant delays in moving quickly, on overwhelming superiority in everything.

Montgomery was competent, in the sense that anyone making general rank is competent. He was probably, a perfect WW I general. Unfotunately, he was fighting WW II.

In the summer of 1942, Hitler got his two last breaks from Joseph Stalin. First Stalin believed that the Germans would again concentrate their forces in an attack on Moscow. He was wrong. OPERATION 'BLUE' was a cascading offensive starting at Voronezh, and moving south east in a series of inter-related sub -offensives, whose final objective was the Caucasus oil fields, in SOUTHERN Russia. Second, Stalin ordered a major offensive of his own toward Kharkov. What Stalin didn't know was that he was ordering an attack at the seam of two German armies assembling for BLUE.

The Soviets jumped off first, and their attack succeeded beyond their wildest dreams. There seemed to be no Germans in the southern USSR in their path, which was true, because the Germans were letting the Soviets move further into the bag, as it were. When the Soviet generals smelled the proverbial rat they requested, and then begged Stalin to let them withdraw. He refused. And then the Germans sprung the trap.

BLUE started somewhat later than planned, because of the large scale ambush the Germans perpetrated on the Soviets. But much of the potential Soviet resistance had been destroyed, so the German offensive started impressively. But there were already signs that things would not go well.

First, Field Marshal Fedor von Bock chose to TAKE Voronezh, rather than by-pass it. Since the entire German plan rested on a series of sequential offensives, Bock's delay affected the entire operation. Second, the Soviets had learned to retreat, and were not being captured [or killed] in droves as they had in the past. Third, and little noticed at the time, the German Sixth Army, the largest single army in the German Order of Battle [over 325,000 men], had a new commander [the previous commander, Field Marshal von Reichnau, had died doing exercise during the winter]. His name was Friedrich Paulus, the former head of the Operations Section of the German General Staff. And he would prove to be a disaster.

Paulus was basically a professional staff officer. while he had done troop command rotations as a junior officer, he had not done so as a general. In point of fact, Paulus had never commanded a division in combat [he was rather like Alexander Haigh and Colin Powell in that respect]. In 1941 he had been sent to Africa to spy on, and report on Erwin Rommel's conduct of the African campaign. He had succeeded to command of Sixth Army because he had been its Chief of Staff when Reichenau died.

As Blue cascaded past Rostov, the plan called for Sixth Army and various Axis satellite armies to mask the Volga while the final phase of the offensive swung into the Caucasus, and the oil fields. And it was at this point that Adolf Hitler began to interfere, at a level far surpassing anything he had done before in Army operations.

The plan was that Sixth Army and fourth Panzer Army would mask Stalingrad and the Volga, taking it if they could. But Hitler ordered Fourth Panzer Army to join First Panzer Army, and other German formations in the drive to the oil fields. Result? A traffic jam of such major proportions that the entire drive into the Caucasus slowed. And at THAT point, Hitler ordered Fourth Panzer Army, whose aid the Caucasus formations could really use, back to the vicinity of Stalingrad.

By now it was mid-September. Richtofen's 4th Air Fleet had bombed Stalingrad into rubble in August, and the Soviets had turned the rubble, the sewers, and every square foot of Stalingrad in tunnels, defensive positions and snipers' nests. And Paulus began his attack. the fighting in Stalingrad was brutal. The tanks were ineffective in street fighting. The infantry wound up fighting for buildings basement by basement, room by room, floor by floor. They called it the "Rattenkrieg", the war of the Rats. And Vasily Zaitsev and hundreds of snipers made every day a hell for the Germans.

And still Paulus attacked. And while the Germans moved forward in sectors of the city, they could never quite take it. Soviet general Vasily Chuikov saw to that.

And as more and more of Sixth Army was fed into Stalingrad, and as the separation between Paulus and von Kleist [commander of the Caucasus attack] got wider, the Germans were forced to commit the defense of Sixth Army's northern and southern flanks to their Allies. But they had to separate the Rumanians from the Hungarians with the Italians. the Spanish Blue Division of volunteers was inserted between other hostile Allies. And it was the weakness of these Allies that led to the Soviet Plan.

The key to Stalingrad was 20 miles to the west - the Kalach bridgehead. It was the only supply line from the west to the Stalingrad front. Break through the Axis ally held flanks, drive to Kalach and seize it, and the Soviets would have a deep encirclement of the Sixth Army, a jumping off point for a drive on Rostov, cutting off the troops in the Caucasus, and opportunities to take German airfields, and deny Sixth Army not only air cover, but any hope of sufficient re-supply by air.

The Soviets struck first in the north. They broke the Rumanians in hours. Within two days, they did the same thing in the south. within four days they seized Kalach. It was now that Hitler and Paulus delivered Sixth Army to its doom. When the Russians broke through, and seized Kalach, Paulus failed to act. And then Hitler issued one of his famous 'no retreat, stand or die' orders, accepting Goering's assurances that the Luftwaffe could supply Stalingrad by air, as he had the Demyansk pocket the winter before. But Stalingrad was no Demyansk. There were armies and Corps trapped at Stalingrad, not divisions. And Stalingrad lacked the dynamic leadership that had permeated the German defense at Demyansk.

Paulus was now in a situation like his counterpart, Rommel was in Africa. the difference was Rommel disobeyed Hitler's order, and got his men out. Paulus sat on his hands.

The Germans tried to relieve Stalingrad with 4th Panzer Army and some Kampfgruppen. They got within 20 miles, but while they tried to break in, Paulus made no move to break out [he may have been too short of fuel to do so], citing Hitler's order. And the Soviets tightened the ring.

In January, 1943, Hitler promoted Paulus to Field Marshal. Since no German Field Marshal had ever surrendered, Hitler expected Paulus to commit suicide. He was to be very disappointed.

Paulus surrendered at the end of January. When he did, Sixth Army was down to 96,000 men. Of those, 5,500 would return to Germany in 1955. Paulus would go on to make propaganda radio messages for the Soviets. After his release, he lived in East Germany.

But URANUS was not the success Zhukov hoped for. Kleist and his Army Group escaped from the Caucasus, due to Kleist's handling of his forces in retreat, and the masterful defense Field Marshal Erich von Manstein conducted that denied the Soviets both Rostov and Kleist.

And it all started today in 1942. 

He had connived to get command of the Army of Tennessee. And having gotten it, he proceeded, via a series of some five attacks to destroy its combat power and lose Atlanta to William t. Sherman. And in the aftermath of that loss, John Bell Hood scrambled around to come up with a plan to force Sherman out of Atlanta.

Hood's first solution was to fall on Sherman's supply lines from Tennessee, cut them, and force him to retreat. Unfortunately for Hood, two things militated against that plan's success. First, although it put a strain on his resources, Sherman was able to cover his supply lines with enough troops to stymie Hood. And second, Sherman didn't give two figs about his supply lines, as he was about to cut lose from them and begin his March to the Sea.

Hood's next idea was to invade Tennessee, threaten Nashville, and possibly advance to the Ohio, and threaten the state of the same name, forcing Sherman to abandon Georgia and fight Hood.

But Sherman, anticipating that possibility sent the bulk of his own Army to Tennessee, under the command of George Thomas. If he got to Nashville, Hood would face a dug in enemy, superior in numbers, cavalry and artillery. Hood marched north anyway.

He found a part of Thomas' army at Franklin, a contingent that had slipped out of an attempted encirclement the day before [due to exhausted confederate troops falling asleep near a road junction they were supposed to close. Hood was livid.

And when they closed on the now entrenched Union troops at Franklin, hood ordered a series of frontal attacks. They cost him five generals, including States Rights Gist, and probably the best general in the west, Patrick Cleburne, as well as a large number of his troops.

Hood then pressed on to Nashville, where he confronted Thomas. Hood waited, Grant, sensing inaction, stewed. But when he was ready, Thomas launched two major attacks, led by the cavalry on his right. He virtually destroyed Hood's army [the only general on either side to accomplish that], driving it back into northern Georgia, where hood resigned his command. Joseph E. Johnston was put back in command of the remnants, and it was he who surrendered to Sherman in north Carolina shortly after Appomattox.

But Hood started the slide to his Army's destruction on this day in 1864.

He became to poster boy for the golden Age of Pirates. At one point he blockaded the major port of South Carolina. He commanded a flotilla of some four pirate ships. His flagship, QUEEN ANNE'S REVENGE, a converted slaver, carried some forty guns, and could outrun any ship of the line, and possibly outgun anything else. His name was Edward Thach, or Teach. We know him as Blackbeard.

Blackbeard started, as did many of his contemporaries, as a privateer, sailing under letters of marque issued by Britain against Spain. But when that war ended, and the privateers were beached, as it were, many turned to piracy. And B;lackbeaqrd was one. He started as a common seaman under Benjamin Hornigold, working his way up through the ranks until Hornigold gave him command of a sloop. And when Hornigold took the King's Pardon, Blackbeard didn't, although he faked doing so.

Teach hooked up with probably the most ineffective pirate in history, Stede Bonnet. And while bonnet floundered, Blackbeard shown. Teach had a very good understanding of psychological warfare. The lit fuses in his beard, the beard itself, the pistol belt were all part of the act. Teach actually harmed very few people. Most gave up at the mere sight of him.

Then, in 1718, QUEEN ANNE'S REVENGE ran aground [perhaps deliberately, and Teach fled on a smaller vessel up the shallow waters of the inter-coastal waters, abandoning most of his men, but keeping most of the treasure. Teach then struck a deal with the governor of North Carolina, who for a cut of the profits turned a blind eye to Teach's piracy [He even presided at Blackbeard's wedding]

Teach then became one of America's first commuters, traveling from the then capitol of the colony, Bath, to Ocracoke Island, where he kept his ship. But while the governor might have been content, many Carolina planters weren't. And if they couldn't go to their governor, they had no compunction about petitioning the governor of Virginia for succor. and that succor came in the form of a Royal Navy squadron commanded by Lieutenant Robert Maynard.

Maynard engaged Blackbeard at Ocacote, and lured him into boarding Maynard's ship [he hid the bulk of his men belowdecks]. In the vicious battle that ensued, Blackbeard was purportedly shot five times, and received 20 sword cuts. Maynard then cut off his head, tied it to his bowsprit , and took it back to Virginia [Blackbeard's corpse, thrown into the water was alleged to have swum around Maynard's ship three times before sinking]

Maynard ran into trouble when he got back to Richmond. First, he took items from Blackbeard's ship against orders. Second, he tried for too much of the credit in bringing Teach down, ignoring the contributions of others. He was reprimanded, and went without promotion for some twenty years. today, he is largely forgotten.

And Teach? Blackbeard is more famous today than he was in the 18th century. His name and visage have become synonymous with piracy. He is [the fictional Jack Sparrow aside], as they say, the "Brand".

Hippotaku [Tankan] Bay in the Kurile Islands is a desolate, lonely place. A place where hardy fisherman sail from to wrest a living from the hostile northern Pacific. a place to prepare their catch for market.

But on 25 November, 1941, Hippotaku Bay was almost unrecognizable from the amount of shipping [and people] it sheltered. Because aside from the few fisherman about, the Bay sheltered six aircraft carriers, AKAGI, KAGA, SORYU, HIRYU, SHOKAKU, and ZUIKAKU, two battleships, cruisers, destroyers, tankers and other support ships, i.e. , the Imperial Japanese Navy's First Air fleet, also known as KIDO BUTAI [The Strike force], Japan's premiere [and newly formed - 1940] naval air attack force.

And that force was getting up steam, and preparing to sail. Battleship guns were test fired at a dead volcano. Fuels was topped off. All in preparation for the grand move planned by the commander of the Combined fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

It was a plan that ran against Yamamoto's well known opposition to war with the united States. Having spent time in America, Yamamoto was fully aware of that country's economic prowess, and the futility of a war by Japan with the U.S. But Yamamoto's reticence was not shared by all of Japan's military leadership, nor even all of the civilians. and after Roosevelt's embargo on U.S. oil and petroleum products to Japan, Japan was faced with either caving to America's demands she withdraw from China, or to find another source of oil. that source existed in present day Indonesia, then the Dutch East Indies. But to seize that oil meant war with the Netherlands. War with the Netherlands meant war with the Netherlands' ally, Great Britain. And an attack on them left Japan's eastern flank open to an attack by the Americans, firstly from the Philippines, and since 1940, by the U.S. Pacific Fleet which had been relocated to Pearl Harbor from the U.S. West Coast at the express orders of FDR [and over the vociferous objection of the then Pacific Fleet commander]

And that fleet movement made Pearl Harbor an enticing target if war came.

1940 also saw the attack that gave Yamamoto his inspiration for a Pearl Harbor operation. In November, the British Mediterranean Fleet had struck the Italian Naval Base at Taranto with an air attack launched from aircraft carriers, that had sunk two Italian battleships and damaged a third. The Japanese had spent most of 1941 overcoming technical problems for the attack [launching torpedoes in shallow water, the lack of armor piercing bombs for attacks on battleships], and practicing for it. The last piece of the puzzle, Carrier Division Five [SHOKAKU and ZUIKAKU], were not ready to join KIDO BUTAI until October, 1941, roughly a month before the sally from Hippotaku Bay [their primary responsibility during the attack would be airfields and land targets].

During 1941, the Japanese engaged in diplomatic discussions with the united states. But during the late summer and fall, the elements that comprised First Air fleet slipped their moorings in one and twos and small groups, and headed for the Kuriles. They traveled under radio silence, and although they knew where they were going, most did not know why. Nor would they until early December, as they closed on Hawaii, when all hopes of a diplomatic solution were abandoned [if they ever really existed], and the code signal for the attack was transmitted from the High Command.

But on 25 November, 1941, that all lay before them as the first Air Fleet steamed into the silent fog bound northern Pacific.

Japan has never paid for this treachery.  Our mindset following the surrender was weak, and a betrayal to China.

It was the result of a call for help from the Byzantine emperor to fight off the Muslim Seljuk Turks who not only held Jerusalem, and denied entry to it for Christian pilgrims, but also threatened Constantinople. It was a chance for the Pope to further his power over the kings and nobles of Europe. And it was a chance for Christendom to counterattack over 400 years of Islamic aggression that had destroyed the Christian littoral around the southern part of the Mediterranean, in the Middle East, and in Iberia.

The vehicle was the Council of Claremont, where Pope Urban II gave a rousing speech calling for a Crusade to free Jerusalem from the Turks, and promising forgiveness of all sins who took the cross to do so.

The speech was a great success, especially when remission of all sins was coupled with the Church's guarantee of all property rights and other rights for those who took the vow to go on Crusade. The Crusade was also a way for second and third sons, barred from inheritance by the laws of primogeniture, to gain lands of their own.

But Crusade was not merely for nobles and knights. Two of the first Crusades were of peasants and children, borh of which ended in both failure and horror. But the military Crusade that arose from Urban's speech at Claremont was a success. The Europeans captured Jerusalem in a sea of Muslim [and Jewish] blood. they would hold it for almost a century, and other parts of the holy Land for significantly longer.

And although Jerusalem was captured in Urban's lifetime, he died before the knowledge of that fact reached Europe. He died not knowing that the Crusade he had called had, in fact, accomplished its mission.

It has been called a 'massacre' by some historians. If it was, and IMO it wasn't], it was a massacre that was the beginning of the end of a war started by another massacre [Sand Creek], and involved the same Indian Chief as victim - Black Kettle, peace chief of the Southern Cheyenne.

In 1864, a volunteer unit of the Colorado militia led by Col. John Chivington, minister, part-time soldier, and hero of the Battle of Glorietta Pass attacked the village of Black Kettle. the resultant massacre boggles the mind. Babies were butchered [Chivington used, if he did not coin the phrase, "Nits make lice", when asked about the children], women were killed and mutilated, bodies were scalped.

One result of Chivington's actions was a war breaking out in Kansas, Colorado, northern Texas and adjacent areas with the southern Cheyenne, the Comanche, the Kiowa, Northern Cheyenne, and even Lakota from further north, over the massacre at Sand Creek.

Black Kettle had escaped the massacre, and still clung to the hope of peace, but the war dragged on. And many of Black Kettle's young men fought in it. And as a result of their activity in the early winter of 1868, they left a trail back to their village in the snow. And on November 28th, the U.S. Army came calling.

The Army unit involved was the U.S. 7th Cavalry, under the command of the regiment's executive officer, LTC George Armstrong Custer.

Custer had been in Monroe, Michigan, suspended for a year without pay, after being convicted by a court-martial of various infractions, including abandoning his command to ride over 100 miles to be with his wife. But when Phil Sheridan decided that the way to beat the Indians was to campaign against them in the winter, when their mobility was virtually nil, he also decided that the man to beat them was custer, who he then recalled to duty.

Custer spent the first part of his recall training his men, and laying in winter gear. He took the field in a snowstorm that turned into a blizzard, but pushed on. and on November 27th, his Indian scouts struck a trail, and Custer and the 7th followed it. that evening, Custer and his men were looking down at Black Kettle's village.

The plan was pure Custer. Dividing his command into three columns, they would attack from three directions at the same time. Every effort was to be made to spare women and children. the signal to attack would be the regimental band's playing the "Gary Owen". the attack would be at dawn.

The attack went off smoothly. The village was taken [Items taken during the earlier raid were found in some of the teepees]. And while some women [including Black Kettle's wife, who was killed with Black Kettle] died [which Custer largely prevented], most of the women and children were taken prisoner.

But  at that point, the attack took a turn for the worst. first, Custer's second in command took a party of some nineteen men, and rode further to the east, proclaiming "For a coffin or a brevet". They were never seen again. Then, increasing numbers of Indians began appearing from the direction Elliot had ridden off in, at the same time Custer became aware from subordinates and scouts that Black Kettle's was the first in a series of villages [reportedly some 17 of Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowas and others] along the Wash*ta.

As Custer came under increasing fire, from an increasing number of Indians , he sounded recall. He then had his men feint toward the other Indian villages. The bluff worked, and the Indians that had advanced against the 7th fell back to protect their own villages. As soon as they did, Custer withdrew to Black Kettle's village. Mounting his prisoners on Indian ponies, he had the rest of the herd shot, and the village burned. What he did not do was search for Elliot. Instead, he withdrew to Sheridan's winter camp with his prisoners.

Custer was condemned in some [mostly Eastern ] quarters. He was praised in the west, and in the Army. However, his failure to search for Elliot caused a rift in the 7th that never healed. One of his subordinates, a friend of Elliot, CPT Frederick Benteen, who already disliked Custer, became almost pathological in his hatred. He sent anonymous letters to various newspapers denouncing Custer and his conduct of the battle. Benteen would come up short for Custer at the Little Big Horn.

But Custer came out of the Wash*ta heralded as one of he greatest Indian fighters on the Plains. He cemented that reputation the following Spring when he forced the southern Cheyenne to make peace. By now, in Sheridan's eyes he could no wrong. Except, perhaps, with a Cheyenne woman. Cheyenne oral history says Custer took a Cheyenne woman as his mistress, and that they had a boy, who died later. He was called Yellow Bird.

While the Crusades beat back the murderous muslims, it did not accomplish much.  Here we are in 2017, and they continue their same murderous practices of their demonic prophet, killing everyone in their path.  This mindset will never disappear as long as muslims exist.  They literally think their god wants them to kill all the non believers.  As long as this mindset is held, islam is an enemy of the civilized world.

Diversity is not worth a pile of bull crap if this mindset prevails.  And as long as the civilized world allows these maggots entry into their countries, these people, or enough of them will continue to wreck mayhem.

What Merkel has done to Germany with the massive influx of muslims into her country will ultimately spell its doom.  How ironic that the Germans murder the Jews and then replace their population with muslims who will ultimately turn on them and kill them.  What the Crusades accomplished will all be undone with the massive influx of muslims into Europe.  France becomes an islamic state within twenty years, where the majority of the electorate are muslim.  When that happens, all that is sacred starting in that country will be destroyed.  I see France ending much like Lebanon. 

Blame it on whatever killed Mongke Khan in China [the last of the three Khans who died on campaign]. When he died, his brother Hulegu had just destroyed the Aabassid Caliphate in Bagdhad, and had destroyed the Assassins. He had invaded Syria, and was moving into Judea.

But with Mongke's death, a civil war arose between his two other brothers Qublai and Arik Boqa, for the title "Khan of Khans". That left a power vacuum, and Hulegu now found himself facing an alliance of Turkic Muslim  Mamelukes in Egypt, allied with the newly Islamisized Golden horde in Russia under Berke Khan. Their war was over Azerbaijan, and Hulegu's execution of the Caliph of Bagdhad. Mongke would have kept Berke "onside" as it were. There was no one to do so now. And with his forces split, Hulegu had his best general go down to defeat at Ain Jalut, south of the Dead Sea. Islam was saved.

Never paid? Aside from Hiroshima and Nagasaki, every major city in Japan was reduced to charcoal. More people died in one B-29 raid on Tokyo than died at Hiroshima. Every major ship in the Imperial Japanese Navy was sunk, or disabled. Almost her entire merchant marine was destroyed. She was stripped of all her overseas possessions, including Iwo Jima and Okinawa [later returned], Korea, Manchuria, the Marshalls Gilbert and Caroline islands, and the southern Sakhalin Islands.

Our mindset was weak?. We put our own Shogun in to run their country, i.e., Douglas MacArthur. WE wrote their post war constitution, wherein they gave up the right to wage war. We occupied their country. I don't see us as weak.

What are you, Japanese?

You paste these historical pieces, yet know not the consequences of what could have happened with the Japanese.  The Japs were only lagging slightly behind the USA in their development of the nuclear bomb.  Are you aware they successfully tested a nuclear bomb on the Korean peninsula?  How long do you think it would have taken them to hit the USA with the nuclear bomb if they had the ability?

Are you aware they tested biological weapons in China and had plans to blanket the western half of the USA with a bomber that could fly halfway across America? 

The Japanese were ruthless murderers, and they have not paid for their brutality to both China and the USA.

Stripped of her overseas possessions?  What the F(*& are you talking about?  Almost all of those territories were seized!  Ugggh!

I am fully aware of what we did to them.  And they were petitioned to surrender before the dropping of the two bombs that were most justified. 

To paraphrase Adm Halsey from a speech made in San Francisco in 1943,  'the only good Jap, is a Jap that has been dead for six months or more.  In a country like Japan, where the civilian population supports it's military as they do in Japan, they only good Jap civilian, is a Jap civilian that has been dead for six months or more.' 

Had the Japanese had six more months to develop their bomber, the outcome of the war could have been very different.  I stand by what I said.  They have not paid, and contrary to the emperor of Japan implying that it was a brief interlude, the Japs have NOT answered particularly to the Chinese for the murder of 40 million people, many innocent helpless civilians.  And the Chinese have not forgotten the horror inflicted upon them by the Japanese.

The final chapter in that conflict has not been written, and if the USA stands with Japan, we are on the wrong side of that argument.

My father fought in the Pacific, driving a landing craft at some of the worst battles.  He would never utter one word about what he saw.  The horrors he witnessed I can only discern from accounts provided by others, e.g. Saipan, Okinawa, Leyte Gulf and Luzon to name a few.

Yes, we wrote their post war constitution , largely modeled after our own, and we have spent perhaps a trillion dollars to defend Japan since the war.  They benefited rather nicely with that arrangement, enabling their corporations to be subsidized in the global market by their government while we provide their national defense at our taxpayers' expense.

I agree with President Trump that nations like Japan must begin paying the USA for this type of service! 

To your first ad hominem attack, no, I am not Japanese. I'm a second generation American of Portuguese and Italian descent. One of my uncles was killed by the Japanese on Guam.

By profession, I have been a U.S. Army officer, and a prosecutor. By avocation, I am a historian. Am I aware of what the Japanese could have done? Yes. But would have, could have, doesn't make for history. they did engage in biological weapons warfare [Unit 731 in Manchuria]. but they weren't punished for that because WE wanted their research. Same principle as bringing SS OBERSTURMFUEHRER Werner Von Braun and his cohorts from Peenemunde and DORA-MITTEBAU to the U.S under "Operation Paperclip, the operation, you know, signed off on by then President Truman.

Japan's constitution wasn't written for their benefit, but for ours. We wanted them disarmed, and initially we wanted the Zaibatsu broken up. And you are quite correct that Japan was petitioned to surrender before the A-Bombs were dropped, but THAT WAS AFTER Lemay had incinerated every worthwhile target in Japan with incendiaries. And we weren't trying to spare the Japanese. We were trying to avoid an estimated 500,000 to 1.5 million U.S. casualties. If they chose not to accommodate us, the options were a naval strangulation and starvation for them, protracted war for us, or invasion.

So we will agree to disagree. and by the way, which Chinese? Chiang Kai Shek's - or Mao's

In reference to your question of which Chinese, I presume you mean in terms of seeking some level of revenge or justice, I would presume it is all people of Chinese extraction.  I assume you read the Rape of Nanking.  I listened to the author of that book at a book signing/presentation.  She spoke for about one hour, and I found her interesting.  She also lost multiple relatives to the Japanese during the war, and there was no mistaking the fact she felt strong about the need for some level of justice in regard to the Japanese.

I am fully aware of all the attacks you detailed in your last response.  I was aware of what Lemay did, and the incendiary destruction on many Japanese cities.  It is often Dresden that gets mentioned in this regard, but I know Japan was hit hard.  And again from my perspective, they earned it.

Subsequent to WWII, I believe we as a nation have lost the meaning of war.  I abhor war, but if you're going to war against a perceived enemy, from my perspective, there is only one standard, the total vanquishing of that enemy.  Anything less than that is a fool's errand. 

I have a question for you.  Do you believe the actions in Afghanistan by George Bush make sense?  When he left office, the Taliban controlled 80% of the country, and when Obama left office, not only the Taliban had a presence in Afghanistan, it was reported that ISIS had control of six provinces there.  We as a nation have squandered perhaps over $1 trillion on both Iran and Afghanistan, and to what end?  Also, the blood of our brave men and women in uniform.  For what?  Like Vietnam, I ask, what is the objective in these countries?  If buffering their government for the adoption of democracy is the answer, the fact is, democracy will not work well in an islamic state. 

Freedom is not synonymous with islam. 

Back to the Japanese, I would say the Bataan death march, the relief of the prisoner camps, and the many other stories that came to light toward the end of the war in both theaters that enraged the Allies sufficiently to justify any and all attacks upon Japan and Germany.  One fellow I worked with years ago was in the Army in Europe, and his accounts of what the German SS did to captured Allies in France boiled his blood.  He made no excuses for killing every SS his men encountered after that news broke.  They took no prisoners.

Being in the Army, I suspect you had the opportunity to see some of the destruction first hand.  I went to Berlin, and if you saw Berlin, East Berlin kept large sections with all the destruction in plain evidence.  The Allies pretty much bombed the sh*t out of both countries.

They said WWI was the war to end all wars, and yet WWII was a far more engaging war, with far more casualties.  It is my contention that this century will bring forth conflicts that will make the wars of the last century look tame by comparison.  The great war of this century, which I believe will absolutely happen, will kill billions, and the prime weapon of choice will be bio weapons.  It is inevitable.

And beyond wars, pestilence will also produce huge numbers of death.  My wife works for the CDC, and the number of bacteria that are becoming resistant to anti-biotics grows each year.  The numbers dying in the USA are increasing each year. 

I had a bio professor tell me in 1972, with 3.5 billion people on the planet, that the planet was extremely overpopulated, and that mother nature has a way of bringing balance.  He said there would come a plague of something that would wipe out the vast majority of the world's population.  One way or another, it is coming.

The tensions between two peoples, Red and White, over land, and the political ambitions of one man, lead to an atrocity on this day in 1864, that leads to blood and fire on the Plains that never really ends until Wounded Knee.

The plains of Eastern Colorado had been one of the focuses of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. A large portion of it had been reserved for the southern Cheyenne and Arapaho. Bu the discovery of gold in the Rockies brought whites in large numbers onto that land, with the resultant increased raiding by the Indians on white miners, settlers, and even travelers.

But some Indians saw both the futility and danger of these actions, and in an effort to avoid further trouble, made a new treaty with the Federal government, accepting a smaller reservation, coupled with annuities. They were led by Black Kettle, a Southern Cheyenne. And then came the civil War.

The Army was withdrawn to fight that war, leaving the frontier almost defenseless [in Arizona, with Cochise's Apaches on a tear, the locals invited in the confederacy]. It also left Indians predisposed to peace in a very bad position, since their relations with the Army had been good, and they could rely on troops for their protection in some times of need.

The governor of Colorado began to raise volunteer military units to police the territory and combat hostile Indians. One such unit was the Third Colorado volunteers, commanded by one col. John Chivington.

Chivington had made a name for himself fighting the Confederates who had invaded Arizona in response to the pleas of the territorials. He was instrumental in winning the decisive battle of the campaign at Glorietta Pass. But that victory didn't translate into any material benefit to Chivington, and by 1864, he was in Colorado.

Chivington, a former minister, had political ambitions. And the path he saw to obtaining that goal lay through service to the territory in a military capacity. And if he won a battle over the Indians, so much the better.

And their were some military actions potentially available.

Indian societies were not structured in the way many whites thought they were. Chiefs had little control over their warriors. So while Black Kettle signed a treaty, it was only applicable to those Indians who agreed to abide by it. Many didn't, and the raiding continued. So black Kettle conferred with the governor, and some of his military staff. They agreed that for the Indians safety, they should pitch their teepees near a fort. Black Kettle settled at Sand Creek. Both an American flag and a white flag flew over his encampment to demonstrate his peaceful intentions.

His intentions meant nothing to Chivington. Black kettle's village was a much easier target than trying to bring horse nomads to battle when they didn't want to fight. And Chivington apparently assumed that a 'victory' there would guarantee to jumpstart his political career.

The attack was something out of Dante's "Inferno". Almost 150 Indians were called. Almost all were women and children ["Nits make lice" Chivington purportedly said when asked about the children]. Bodies were scalped [not just men], and mutilated [breasts and genitalia of both sexes were removed. The Third Colorado then burned the village, and killed any wounded they found. they then returned to Denver, bedecked in scalps and body parts to the initial acclaim of the citizenry  [a display of their 'trophies was shown at the Opera house]. But that acclaim turned sour during a military court of inquiry into the facts. Several regular army officers, attached to the Third Colorado, had refused to follow Chivington's orders, and testified against him. Americans in general, especially in the East, condemned both the action and the man. Although the Army didn't prosecute him [on the excuse he had resigned his commission], Chivington's dreams of a political career, and his reputation, were gone. He faded from history.

But his handiwork didn't. Southern Cheyenne, joined by Arapaho, their Northern Cheyenne cousins, the Lakota, Kiowa and Comanche set the plains aflame in a war that now exploded on the frontier. Black Kettle took his people to a reservation in 'Indian Territory', where, as the war raged on, Black Kettle again found he could not control his young men, who slipped away to join various war parties. but they always came back. And in November, 1868, they unknowingly brought the U.S. Army with them. To a place called the Wash*ta.

The Nineteenth Party Congress of the CPUSSR is shrouded in myth. One of the most famous is that the delegates failed to deliver sufficient votes for Stalin, and, instead, sought to replace him with Sergei Kirov, the Party boss of Leningrad. If they did, it didn't matter, since as Stalin liked to say, it doesn't matter who votes, it only matters who counts the votes. But it has become something of a Communist urban legend.

Be that as it may, Kirov, by all accounts a loyal Stalinist and Party member [like Bukharin, Kamenev and Zinoviev], headed the Leningrad party, not known for their slavish adherence to Stalin's thoughts and utterances. And Stalin, could never abide people like that.

So, on December 1, 1934, as Kirov, minus his bodyguard, walked up to his office at the Smolny Institute  [the Leningrad Party  Headquarters], he was accosted by a disgruntled party member laying in wait  named Nikolayev, and shot to death.

Stalin and Yagoda [NKVD chief], as well as other members of Stalin's inner circle were on a train to Leningrad that night. But before leaving Moscow, Stalin had gotten the Politburo to pass a series of sweeping decrees that became the foundation of the Great Terror.

Stalin and his toadies started on the Leningrad Party and apparatus. One of the first to die was the Leningrad NKVD chief. A large percentage of the Party bureaucracy followed. But that was only the first step. The Great Terror ran for over four years. By the time it was over, two heads of the NKVD [Yagoda and his successor Yezhov] were dead. So was most of the leadership of the Red Army [three out of five Marshals, the competent ones, included], So were Bukharin, Kamenev, and Zinoviev, and hundreds of other leading party figures. The death toll of the lower level apparatchiks were in the thousands. Hundreds of thousand more citizens and party members were murdered, or sent to the Gulag. And when it was over, Stalin was absolute master of the Soviet Empire.

And the Nineteenth Party Congress? Well over 90% of the attendees were dead by 1940.

I thank both of you for another history lesson!

Was able to watch on TV about Lucky and these gangs.  Going to re-read these now.

Not only died with a bang....but was a canary that couldn't fly!